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■ I LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. I 

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^ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Q 



A GRAMMAR 



THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 



FOUNDED UPON THE PRINCIPLES LAID DOWN BY 



J. GRIMM, BECKER, SCHMITTHENNER, etc. 



BY HE IN RICH APEL 



•ROFESSOR OF THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 




LONDON : 

C, AND H. SENIOR, 49, PALL MALL. 

1840. 






LONDON : 

'HINTED BY J. WERTHEIMEK AM) CO. 

ClliCUS PI ACE, FINSBURY CIRCUS. 



PREFACE. 



The object of the author in submitting this elemen- 
tary work to the judgment of the English public, is to 
furnish a guide to. the German language, founded on an 
improved system, which embodies, in a practical form, 
the results to be derived from the great development of 
the science of grammar made in Germany within the 
last ten or fifteen years. Teutonic philology has attained 
its present eminence principally through the extensive 
historical and comparative investigation of all the Ger- 
manic languages, ancient as well as modern, by Jacob 
Grimm, whose celebrated and truly colossal Grammar* 
has introduced a new era in philological studies of every 
kind. Next to Grimm, and adopting his principles, 
Becker, f Schmitthenner, Herling, Gotzinger, &c, have 
successfully cultivated the same field for practical pur- 
poses. Through their efforts, the only true and natural 
system, as developed in the language itself, and founded 
on sound historical and logical deductions, has been 
exhibited in all its wonderful regularity and perfection. 



* An excellent analysis of Grimm's Teutonic Grammar may be seen in 
Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine for February of the present year. 

t Dr. Becker has given an English version of his excellent grammar, 
but which is rather too philosophical for schools. 



VI . PREFACE. 

The German Grammars hitherto published for Eng- 
lishmen, are almost all constructed on the antiquated 
plan of former German grammarians, such as Gottsched, 
Adelung, Heinsius, &c, the use of which has long since 
been discontinued in every respectable school and college 
throughout Germany ; for, by their system of arbitrary 
and artificial rules, built but too often upon the unsafe 
ground of conjecture, and arranged chiefly according to 
the principles of Latin Grammar, the view into the true 
organization of the language remained closed, and con- 
sequently a full knowledge of its construction could 
never be effectually obtained. 

In the present little work pains have been taken to 
facilitate as much as possible, the acquirement of the 
numerous and otherwise discouraging details and parti- 
cularities of German grammar, by means of a general- 
ising method, and by a natural, simple, and systematic 
classification of the individual parts ; thus enabling the 
student to obtain, in a very short time, a clear and com- 
prehensive view of the real structure of the language. 
The importance of this to its speedy and sound acquire- 
ment is too obvious to need enforcement.* 

The declension of substantives, as well as the conju- 
gation of verbs, has been extremely simplified ; and there 



* For this reason also, it has been considered unadvisable to encumber 
the work with exercises placed under each rule, as such continued inter- 
ruptions would only serve to confuse the system, and consequently impede 
the progress of the pupil. A separate little volume, however, containing 
a course of practical exercises, is in preparation. 

The author has edited also a volume of the best German tales and 
traditions, under the title of " Sftarchen unb ©agen," selected from the 
collections of Grimm, Bechstein, Steffens, Mailath, &c, with numerous 
wood-cuts, and a German-English Vocabulary ; published by P. Rolandi, 
20, Berners-street, Oxford-street. 



PREFACE. VH 

exists no longer that embarrassing variance in the num- 
ber and arrangement of the declensions, which charac- 
terises all previous grammars. The establishment of 
the two orders of declension and conjugation, adhered to 
by all German grammarians of the present day, perfectly 
agrees with the nature of the internal structure of the 
Teutonic tongue, which admits of but two distinct forms 
of inflection, viz. the Complex Order and the Simple 
Order, or the Strong Form and the Weak Form. The 
difficulties attending the doctrine of the prepositions both 
in regard to their government and signification, are, 
to a great extent, removed. In the Syntax, the logical 
development of the different kinds of sentences, so im- 
portant to the right understanding of their construction, 
will afford very material assistance, especially to those 
not acquainted with the classical languages. The ex- 
amples in illustration of the various rules and peculiari- 
ties of the language, carefully selected from the best 
German authors, chiefly Gothe and Schiller, will not 
only serve as an ornament to the Grammar, but fix 
themselves also far more lastingly on the student's 
memory, than those common-place phrases, generally 
found in grammars, which are no sooner read than for- 
gotten. 

Concerning the importance and practical utility of the 
theory of the formation of words annexed to this book 
(in former grammars either entirely omitted, or offering 
merely some loose and unconnected remarks), the writer 
may be allowed to quote the opinion of a very great 
philologist, well-known in this country, viz. Erasmus 
Rask, who, in his Anglo-Saxon Grammar, on this head 
observes : " This branch of grammar is, in Anglo- 
Saxon, as well as in all the Gothic, Slavonian, &c. 



Vlll PREFACE. 

tongues, of the highest moment in ascertaining the 
gender, inflection, derivation, and primitive signification 
of words, an accurate knowledge of which is, in the dead 
languages, as indispensable to the understanding and 
translating them correctly, as it is, in the living ones, to 
the writing them with elegance and precision, and to the 
enrichment of them. Neglect of this branch has, in the 
old grammars, given birth to many difficult and absurd 
rules, to the framing of which, only some unconnected 
portions of it have been applied here and there, with 
other heterogeneous matter, as the occasion required." 
The same eminent linguist, in his Danish Grammar, 
says : "It will also be a considerable assistance to the 
student's memory in recollecting the immense number 
of words of which a cultivated language consists, if he 
pay some attention to the manner in which this whole 
mass is formed from the few original primitives." 

H. APEL. 

120, Great Russell Street, 
Bloomsbury. 



GERMAN GRAMMAR. 



ALPHABET. 



§ 1. 


The 


German Alpha 


;>et consists of 1 


,he following 


letters : ■ 






* 








CHARACTER, 


NAME. 


POWER. 


CHARACTER. 


NAME. 


POWER, 


% a a 


ah 


a in father 


8 I 


1 


el 


I 


S3 b b 


bay 


b 


9ttmm 


em 


m 


(* C « 


tsay 


ts and k in 


9fl n 


n 


en 


n 






English 


o 








o in more 


J)bd 


day 


d 


* P P 


pay 


P 


£ e e 


a y 


French e close 


£t q 


q 


coo 


kw 






and t open 


SK r 


r 


err 


r 


S f f 


eff 


/ 


ef§ 


s 


ess 


s 


© 9 g 


gay 


g in go 


£ t 


t 


tay 


t 


* * h 


hah 


h aspirate 


U u 


u 


00 


oo in fool, u 


3 i i 


ee 


ee in bee, and 








in full 






£ in fo7Z 


ss » 


V 


fow 


f 


3 i j 


yot 


y consonant in 


SB w 


W 


vay 


v in vein 






year 


% X 


X 


ex 


ks 


St f k 


kah 


k 

3 5 z 


9 9 

tset 


y 

h 


ypsiloii 


i in bill 






Simple 


Vowels. 










a e i 





XX 


»> 





2fe 


e 

a 


£e 


e 




Uc 


e 

u 



LETTERS. 

Modified Vowels. 

pronounced like a in fare. 
„ „ ew in French. 

„ „ u in French. 

Diphthongs. 
at "I 

OX) > pronounced like 02/ in boy 

an J 

tftt „ „ ow in 7*ow> 

eu „ „ oy in boy 

** | » ft * in Zj£e 

ie » » ee in 6ee 

Double Consonants. 



ff 


if pronounced 


like/ 


*>f 


Pf 


J? 


» *>/ 


* 


ch 


55 


„ c& in the Scotch loch 


f* 


sch 


55 


„ sh in shoe 


ff 


ss 


5* 


55 55 


ft 


St 


55 


55 St 





sz 


55 


55 55 


6 


tz 


55 


„ ts 



The pronunciation of the vowels remains always the same, 
and their sounds do not vary as in English. The vowel e, 
however, is either open, as in ber (like a in fare), or close, as 
in get) (like'ei in rein). 

The consonants, simple as well as double, are pronounced as 
pointed out already, but the following is to be observed : — 

b and b assume a harder sound (p and t) at the end of words. 

dj/ at the beginning of a word, before the letter r, and in the 
word <&f)0Vi is pronounced like ?. 

g, at the end of a word or syllable, has a guttural sound like 
d); but softer : e. g. tt>eg. 



THE ACCENT. 3 

t, standing in words of Latin origin before an t/ followed by 
another vowel, is pronounced like t6 : e. g. Nation/ patient. 
tfo, is pronounced like a simple t. 
All substantives are written with capital letters. 
f/ is written at the beginning of a syllable, and g at the end. 
ff> is never used at the end of a word, but £ is substituted. 



§ 2. ACCENT. 

In genuine German words, the accent lies upon the radical or 
primitive syllable of the word : e. g. gewe'fem SBetrfi'bntf. The 
only exception to this rule is found in the adjective lebe'nbig. 

Note. — Words, however, which are taken from foreign, languages, 
generally retain the original accent : SBato'ri/ 2Ct>O0Ca't. 

The following Prefixes are unaccented : — U, emp, ent, et/ q/t t 
MX, and §er $ as, fcefe'fotert/ SSerbru'f . The affixes, or termina- 
tions of words, are likewise unaccented: glu'd=tid)/ fpa'rfam, 
blu'tTg. 

Note. — The affix et/ however, of foreign origin (having sprung from the 
ia, ie of the Roman languages), receives always the full accent, contrary 
to the laws of German accentuation: Sftettere't/ ©pielew't. 

In words compounded with particles, the principal accent 
falls always upon the particle, and the radical syllable of the 
word receives only the subordinate accent : e. g. a'nfangeri/ 
ju'fe&en, (St'ngang, 2C'&fatt. 

Note. — If, however, the particles unter, utot, turd), uni/ nriber, binter/ 
OOll and mtfj be inseparably compounded, they are unaccented ; as, uber* 
fe'len, ttriberfte'hert. 

§ 3. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Words are usually divided into the following three great 
classes : — 

1. Nouns, i.e. names of existences, viz. of things, persons, 
and their qualities ; they include the Nouns substantive, adjec- 
tive, and their representatives the Pronouns. 



, "~ • "" — — ^^nranri— 



4 INFLECTION OF VERBS. 

2. Verbs, i. e. words that express the existence and action of 
things and persons. 

3. Particles, i. e. words which express the various rela- 
tions of space, time, cause, and manner that words and sentences 
bear to each other in speech. The Adverbs, Prepositions, 
Conjunctions, and Interjections belong to them. 

§ 4. INFLECTION OF WORDS. 

The inflection of words consists in the alterations which 
they undergo in order to express the relations of Tense, 
Mood, Person, .Number, and Case. The only description of 
words which are capable of inflection are substantives, adjec- 
tives, pronouns, articles, and verbs; the other words, which 
are inflexible, are called particles. Words are inflected by 
change of vowel (2CMaut) ; as, ftngert/ fang/ gefungen, sing, sang, 
sung ; by the modification of the vowels 0/ 0/ u into d/ hi u, 
as : SSdtcr fathers, Gutter mothers, S6d)ter daughters ; by the 
prefix ge in the formation of the past participle, as : ge^jefyen 
seen, and by adding a termination to the fundamental form of 
the word : fag^et says, £aufse§ of the house, lefcte lived, ett^em 
to a, &c. 

The inflection of Nouns is called Declension, and that of 
Verbs, Conjugation. 

§ 5. THE ARTICLE. 

The article is used principally to indicate the individuality of 
an object. It serves, moreover, for the distinction of the gen- 
der, and to supply the deficiency of inflection in substantives. 
The German language has two articles, the definite and the 
indefinite. 

Note. — The article is neither an original nor an indispensable part of 
speech. The definite article bet/ btC/ bag/ has sprung from the demon- 
strative pronoun ber, btC/ bct$/ and the indefinite article eirt/ from the 
numeral (gin. The Latin language has no article at all, by which it gains 
in brevity of expression, but loses in precision and clearness. 



DECLENSION OF VERBS. 

DECLENSION, 
1. Of the Definite Article. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Masc. 


i 

Fern. Neut. 




N. tec 


tie ta§ 


tie/ the 


G. teg 


tec te§ 


tec/ of the 


D. tern 


tec tern 


ten/ to the 


A. ten 


tie taS 


tie/ the 


2. Of : 


rHE Indefinite 


Article. 


Masc. 


Fern* 


Neut. 


N. etn 


ein=e 


ein/ a 


G. eitveS 


ein-ec 


etn-e§/ of a 


D. ein^em 


einsec 


einsem/ to a 


A. etn^en 


ein=e 


ein/ a 



The application of the articles is generally the same in Ger- 
man as in English. 

The. definite article tec/ tie, ba§, designates a determinate 
individual, or also several determinate individuals, the whole 
species of which is expressed by the substantive ; e.g., tec SSote 
fommt oon tern Jtonige, the messenger comes from the king. 
9ttan mug ten Sag mcfyt doc tern %Unb loben/ we must not praise 
the day before the evening is come. £)er ©tcett tft/ ob tec SSauec 
foil £ecc fetn in tern Sante/ otec tec ^atfec/ the dispute is whether 
the peasant or the emperor is to be master of the land. — Schiller. 

The indefinite article ein/ etne/ ein/ designates only an inde- 
terminate individual of the whole species. Several indetermi- 
nate individuals of the same kind are expressed in the plural 
without article : as, eg roar etnmal etn $6mg unt etne .Kontgin/ there 
was once a king and a queen. Gctn etlec Sflienfcl) jtel)t etle 9ftenfd)en 
an, a noble-minded man attracts noble-minded people. — Gothe. 
£ec Sttenfd) ecfdfyct/ ec fet and), rcec ec maQ, etn Ie£te§ ©litcf unt einen 
letjten Za$, every man, be he who he may, will live to see a last 
happiness and a last day. — Gothe. 

Those abstract nouns, in which no individual is distinguished, 
b3 



O THE ARTICLE. 

are used without article : e. g. £vieg iff: ettrig §nrifd)en Sift unb 
2(rawobn $ nur jwifd^en ©tauben unb SSertraun tffc gricbe/ war is ever 
between cunning and suspicion, peace is only between faith and 
confidence. — Schiller. 

Note. — The definite article is generally used with substantive infinitives, 
and always with adjectives of an abstract signification, used substantively, 
as, bag <&tetyn ermubet/ standing tires; bag 2Crbeiten gefalttifem nidht/ 
working pleases him not. £)er SJlenfd) wxlaxiQt erft bag SReue, fucbet bog 
SKu§lid)e bann mit unermublichem gletf e, enbltd) begebrt er bag ©ute/ bag 
ibn erbebt unb Wertb macbt, man desires first the new, then he seeks with 
unwearied diligence the useful, at last he demands the good, which ele- 
vates him, and makes him worthy. — Gothe. 

The definite article is often required when the whole genus 
of things or creatures, or the entire extent of an abstract notion 
is to be indicated, e. g. £)er fffietn erfrcut beg Sftenfdjen $er$, wine 
gladdens the heart of man. — Gothe. £)te %t\t bringt SSofen/ 
time brings roses. £)te £unft ift tang, bag Ceben f urj 5 bag Uttbett 
fdjrotertj}/ bic ©etegenfyeit ftucbtig, art is long, life short ; judgment 
difficult, opportunity fugitive. — Gothe. 25er (Srnji uberrafcbt ung, 
earnestness takes us by surprize. — Gothe. 

The definite article is very frequently used with proper 
names and abstract substantives, in order to indicate the case 
of the substantive, especially the genitive and dative, e. g. ©er 
Sob beg ©ocrateg, the death of Socrates, ©udjt bie SSevratfjer in 
beg ©altag £ager,seek the traitors in the camp of Gallas. — Schiller. 
Csr war mit Sfttemanb alg bem £>ctamcv he was with no one but Oc- 
tavio. #6re bie ©timme guteg Sftatbg unb ber SSernunft, hear the voice 
of good counsel and of reason. — Gothe. @g blubet Sugcnb aug ber 
Sugenb ©aamen, virtue blooms out of the seed of virtue. — Gothe. 

Proper names do not require the article, except in the plural, 
or when they are used figuratively for the whole species, as 
bie gabietv the Fabii. £)er Sprtdug unferer $rit, the Tyrtssus of 
our time. The article must be used also when an adjective is 
joined to the proper name, as : ber unjlevbltd)e ©chiller, the immor- 
tal Schiller. 

The adjective meift most, always takes the article, as : bie 
meijten Seute, most people. 



THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

If several substantives of the same gender and number fol- 
low each other, only the first requires the article, as : ber 83ater/ 
©of)n unb ©cfyroager ftnb angefommen, the father, son and brother 
in law have arrived. But if substantives, following each other, 
be of different genders or numbers, the proper article must be 
repeated, as : ber ©arten, ba$ £au$ unb bie S0^ut)Ie ge^Sren ti)m f the 
garden, house and mill belong to him. 

If a substantive in the genitive case should precede another 
substantive, the article before the latter is omitted, e. g. 2)eS 
9flenfd)en SCBttte/ ba% ift fetn ©lud/ the will of man is his fortune. — 
Sehiller. £)e§ #tmmel§ gugungen ftnb tmmer bie bejtem the dispen- 
sations of heaven are always the best. — Lessing. 

The following are contractions of the definite article with 
prepositions: — 



am SBaffer 


instead 


of an bem SBaf 


anS „ 


J5 


an ba§ „ 


auf§ „ 


>> 


auf ba$ „ 


beim „ 


J> 


bet bem „ 


burets „ 


V 


burd) ba§ „ 


fur§ „ 


5J 


fur bag „ 


tm „ 


J} 


in bem „ 


in§ „ 


)5 


in ba$ „ 


com „ 


55 


con bem *„ 


sum „ 


53 


ju bem „ 


jur (Srbe 


J J 


&u ber (Srbe. 



§6. SUBSTANTIVES. 

Substantives are those words which express every object of 
sense and of reflection, and are divided into 



Common, Abstract, and Proper. 

Common substantives are those which express all objects in 
nature, such as : man, house, animal, tree. 

Abstract substantives are those which express all objects of 
the understanding, but which have no real existence out of the 
mind, such as : hope, faith, reflection. 



8 GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

Proper substantives are the names of persons, places, coun- 
tries, &c. as : William, Paris, Spain. 

§ 7. THE GENDER. 

The German language distinguishes three genders; the 
masculine, feminine, and neuter. The distinction in living 
beings naturally gives the rule of two genders, the masculine 
and feminine ; to inanimate things, having no natural gender, 
Grammar assigns a third, called the neuter ; but as language 
represents things in some degree as living beings, it frequently 
extends to them also a natural gender, e. g. S5er $luj? > the river ; 
tie SStume, the flower. 

Note. — In the Low-German dialect or *P(attbeutfd)/ substantives have 
only two genders, i. e. a personal and a neuter, being distinguished by 
the articles be and bat. 

The gender in language, according to Grimm, is an exten- 
sion of the natural gender to every object. By this operation 
of the human imagination a number of expressions, containing 
otherwise dead and abstract notions, have received, as it were, 
life and sensation, and by taking the forms and inflections of 
the real gender, there has been spread imperceptibly over the 
whole language a charm of motion, and at the same time a 
binding connection of the parts of speech ; by which also 
monotony of expression is prevented, and the language gains 
in variety and grace. 

As the masculine and feminine genders are extended to in- 
animate things, so also is the neuter gender applied to beings, 
the natural gender of which is represented to be as yet unde- 
fined. The neuter gender is therefore especially given to that 
which is young, little, and to the appellation of a whole species 
of creatures, e.g. ba$ £inb/ the child; ba& Zammr the lamb; 
ba$ &albt the calf; ba§ Shier/ the animal ; bat ^pferb/ the horse ; 
ba$ 23tef)/ the cattle. 

The number of words, however, the gender of which may 
be known from their signification and nature is but small. In 



GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 9 

all the remaining words the gender depends on the form of 
the word, and can only be understood and explained by it. 

Note. — Since the gender of by far the greater number of substantives 
can be known only from the form of the word, it becomes indispensable 
to have an acquaintance with that most important, but hitherto almost 
entirely neglected branch of Grammar, " The Formation of Words ;" con- 
sequently, the gender of substantives belonging to that category has been 
introduced under the head of " The Formation of the Substantive^ which 
is its proper place, and by the study of which alone a sound and practical 
knowledge of it can be acquired. The declension of substantives, how- 
ever, being based chiefly upon a knowledge of the genders, it is here 
necessary to give the general rules. 

§ 8. Of the Masculine Gender are — 

The names of all males, also the names of winds, of the 
seasons, months and days. 

All words ending in xq, ing and ling. 

§ 9. Of the Feminine Gender are — 

The names of all females, most of the names of rivers, and 
of trees ; exceptions to the rivers are, ber SRfytin, bet SCRatm ber 
9te(far, ber tyo, ber SKU/ ber ©angeS/ ber (Sup&rat 3 and to the trees, 
ber tfhorrt/ the maple ; and those names compounded with ber 
SSaunt/ and ber (in old German tera, i. e. tree) as ber ^oltunber 
(old German holun-tra, i. e. hollow tree), elder tree ; ber 
SSkcfyholber/ the juniper. 

Note 1. — £)a§ §03etb (old German daz wip, from the Gothic vaibjan, 
to bind), according to Heyse, derives its neuter gender from having been 
originally considered as a thing, property, or object of possession. The 
same bct§ SDienfd), the wench, as a term of contempt. £)a6 SDftcib chert/ 
the girl, and la$ ftxaUtiiUr the miss, are neuter on account of their 
diminutive termination, although they have long lost such signification, 

Note 2. — 35er SCRonbf the moon, according to the Edda the son of 
Mundilfoeri is masculine, and tie (Sonne/ his sister, feminine. 

All substantives ending in hett/ Izit, ftfjaft, tx t in (inn), unq, 
and those abstract nouns formed from adjectives by the affix e 
with modification of vowel, as : bie ©rof e, the greatness ; bie ©ute/ 
the kindness. 



10 GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

§ 10. Of the Neuter Gender are — 

The names of metals, countries, places and diminutive nouns. 
Exceptions — ber @ta$l/ the steel ; ber Sombacf, pinchbeck ; ber 
3inl/ zinc ; and the following names of countries, Me ^pfal§/ the 
Palatinate; &te-@<fywei&/ Switzerland; Me SEurfet/ Turkey. 

All kinds of words which, without being- real substantives, 
are used substantively as abstract nouns, or nouns of things, as : 
ba§ ©efoert/ walking ; ba§ SKetten, riding ; ba§ ©ute> the good ; ba$ 
@d)6ne/ the beautiful ; ba$ ®rofje/ the great. If adjectives, how- 
ever, are used as personal names, they must have a personal 
gender, e. g. ber SBetfe/ the sage: bie Seutfdbe/ the German 
lady. 

The letters of the alphabet, as : ba$ 20 ba& S3, ba$ (5. 

All words ending in d)en and letn (diminutives), and most of 
those in fet, fat/ and ntf . 

§ 11. Gender of Compound Substantives. 
Compound substantives retain the gender of the ground- 
word, i. e. of the last, even in contradiction to the natural 
gender as: ba$ Srauenjtmmer/ the lady; bie SDRannSperfort/ the 
male person ; bie ^fyilbwatye, the sentinel. 

Note 1. — Several substantives with the ground-word ber SORuth are 
feminine, as : bk 2Cnmutb, grace ; bie Semutfy/ humility ; bk 2Crmutft/ 
poverty. 

Note 2. — The names of places are always neuter, whether the ground- 
word be masculine or feminine. £>te SBartbura, is an exception. 

§ 12. Gender of Foreign Substantives. 

Foreign substantives, after having been received into the 
German language, generally retain the gender of the original 
tongue, e. g. bie Walton, the nation. 

Exceptions. — Many substantives, which have thrown off 
their foreign termination, also adopt other genders according 
to the analogy of German words of like forms, as : bee HHtar, 
the altar j ber Septet/ the scepter, &c. 

§ 13. Some substantives have two genders, generally con- 



DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 



11 



nected with a difference of signification, as : tier £3anb/ the 
volume ; bag SSanb, the ribbon ; ber (See, the lake ; tie ©ee# 
the sea. 

§ 14. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

For the declension of substantives and adjectives, as well as 
for the conjugation of verbs, there are only two forms, but 
these are very distinct, viz. — 

I.— THE COMPLEX ORDER. 
II.— THE SIMPLE ORDER. 

Note. — The Complex Order is also called the strong form, and the 
Simple Order the weak form. The Complex Order is the most ancient 
mode of inflection. 

The genitive case of the singular may be considered as the 
characteristic sign of inflection between these two essentially 
different forms of declension. All substantives (except those 
which are feminine) belonging to the Complex Order, take the 
termination eS or 6 in the genitive singular, and those of the 
Simple Order en or n. 

The Complex Order includes words of all genders, but the 
Simple only such as are masculine or feminine. 



I. COMPLEX ORDER. 



II. SIMPLE ORDER. 



Sing. N. — 


— 


— 


Sing, N. — 


G.— eg 


—eg 


— g 


G.-— en 


D.— e 


— e 


— 


D.— en 


A.— 


— 


— 


A. — en 


1st. Form. 
Plur. N.— e 


2nd Form. 
— er 


3d. Form. 


Plur.N. — en 


G.— e 


— er 


— 


G. — en 


D.— en 


— em 


— n 


D.— en 


A— e 


— er 


— 


A. — en 



12 



DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 





Examples. 




Smg.N. ©otyn 


SSab 


SSogel 


Sing.N. ©raf 


G. ©ot)n=e£ 


23ab s e$ 


SogeU 


G. @raf=en 


D. ©o$n*e 


SSob-e 


25ogel 


D. @rof-en 


A. (Sot)n 


SSab 


SSogel 


A. ©raf-en 


1st Form. 


2i Form. 


3d Form. 




P/wr. N.©6^e 


SSab=ec 


23ogel 


Pfar.N. ©rafcen 


G.©6t)n=e 


S5ab*er 


SSogeX 


G. ©rofscn 


D.@ot)n~en 


J8db=etn 


SSogeUn 


D. @raf-en 


A.@5§n*e 


SSab^er 


Soger 


A. ©rafcen 



§ 15. Rules and Remarks on the use of both orders of in- 
flection. 

I. COMPLEX ORDER. 

By far the greater number of masculine and neuter words 
are declined after the Complex Order, on an average 90 out of 
100. 

The 1st form (nom. plur. e.) comprises the greatest number 
of substantives declined after this order. It includes espe- 
cially masculine monosyllabic primitives, generally modifying 
the vowel in the plural, the feminine primitives enumerated 
under §21 — 2, all of which are subject to a modification of 
vowel, the neuter monosyllabic primitives under §21 — 3 without 
modification of vowel, and all the masculine and neuter deriva- 
tive substantives ending in at, enb/ td)t, tg> ling/ trig/ rut / ntf/ fal 
and fet ? also without modification of vowel in the plural. 

The 2nd form (nom. plur. er) includes only the neuter 
primitives to be found under §22 — 1, a few masculine words as 
exceptions (§ 22 — 2), and all derivatives ending in ttjum. The 
termination ei* of this form is always connected with a modifica- 
tion of vowel. 

To the 3d form (nom. plur. without termination of inflection) 
belong only those masculine and neuter words which terminate 
in el/ en, it, lein and tfjen. Substantives belonging to this class 



DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 13 

do not modify the vowel in the plural, except a few of the 
masc. gender, to be found under § 23, 1. 

§ 16. Feminine substantives are never changed or inflected 
in the singular, whether they follow the complex or the simple 
order of declension. 

Note. — In the old High-German language feminine substantives were 
declined also in the singular. They are inflected even now in some pe- 
culiar expressions, especially in the language of the people and of poetry ; 
e.g. auf (Srbeti/ on earth ; uon SSeiteri/ on the part of; ju ©unftert/ in 
favour of. ^erftrcuet eud) ihv Cammer auf ber 4?etben> disperse (your- 
selves), ye lambs, upon the heath.— Schiller. £>U follfl QUf (Stben fflc 
mid) seitgeri/ thou shalt testify for me on earth. — Schiller. 

§ 17.— II. SIMPLE ORDER. 

1. All feminine substantives are declined after this order, 
excepting, however, those under §21,2, which form their 
plural after the 1st form of the complex order. 

2. All masculine names of persons and animals, of two or 
more syllables, with the termination t f are declined after the 
Simple Order. 

3. No neuter substantive is declined after this order, 

4. The termination en/ in the plural of this order, is never 
connected with a modification of vowel. 

§ 18. A few substantives decline in the singular after the 
complex, and in the plural after the simple order. 

§ 19. In compound substantives, the last component part 
naturally determines the declension : e. g. bctS £cmbt)au§ is de- 
clined like £au§, ba$ «£au§tf)ter like Zhiw, ber Sugang like ©ancj/ 
ber SSetlauf like £auf, &c. 

h 20. MODIFICATION OF VOWELS IN THE 
PLURAL. 

The modification of the vowels at o, u, cm into h f 6/ u> hu, is 
necessary : — 

1. Always with the plural termination tv f as: bit ©otter/ the 
gods ; bte Srrtftumer/ the errors. 

2. Always with the plural termination e in feminine sub- 
stantives ; as, bie 9t&d)te/ the nights. 

c 



14 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

3. Generally with the plural termination e in masculine 
primitives ; as, bte SSctume, the trees. 

4. With the plural termination e in neuter primitives only 
in the two following : tie Slojse, the floats ; Me 5R6t)re, the reeds. 

5. Masculine and neuter substantives ending in the nom. 
singular in el, en, er, Uin, cfcen, do not modify the vowel in the 
plural. A few masculine words, however (§ 23, 1), must be 
excepted. 

Note. — The two feminine words §D?Uttet andSocbter, belonging to this 
class, also modify the vowel in the plural. 

The termination en (n) of the plural of the simple order 
never admits of the modification of vowel. 

DETAILED EXHIBITION OF THE DECLENSIONS. 

I. Complex Order. 

§ 21. 1st Form, nom.. 'plural in e. 

Singular. 



N. 


bet %i\6) 


b!e 91ctd)t 


ba$ 3abr 


G. 


be§ Sifd)eS 


ber Sftadjt 


beg 3afyre§ 


D. 


hem Stfdje 


ber iKacfct 


hem Sahre 


A. 


ben Stfdj 


bte ytafyt 
Plural. 


ba$ 3af)r. 


N. 


bte Stfdje 


bie 5Rdd)tc 


bte Sa^e 


G. 


ber Sifcfte 


ber 9Ud)te 


ber 3at)re 


D. 


ben St[d)en 


ben 9ft&d)ten 


ben Siafyren 


A. 


bte Stfdje 


bte 9flad)te 


bte Saftre. 



To the First Form belong: — 

1. Nearly all monosyllabic Primitives* of the masculine 
gender with modification of vowel in the plural. The follow- 
ing, however, do not modify : — 

* A.11 substantives of one syllable may be considered as primitives. 
See " The Formation of the Substantive." 



DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 



15 



tfal, eel 
liav, eagle 
%xm, arm 
25od)t, wick 
©old)/ dagger 
#aud), breath 
£uf, hoof 



#unb, dog SJtonb, moon ©d)tu), shoe 

^orf, cork Stftovb, murder @toar/ starling 

£ad)g, salmon £)rt/ place ©toff, stuff 

Saut/ sound *Par!, park Sag, day. 

Sud)6, lynx $fab, path 



SCftold), salaman- $pfau, peacock 
der $>ol/ pole 

2. The following monosyllabic Primitives of the feminine 
gender, all of which modify the vowel in the plural : — 
2Cngjt, anguish ©ruft/ grave £au§, louse 9^u^/ nut 
2Cict/ axe #anb, hand £uft/ air 

SSanf, bench ^out/ skin £ujt/ pleasure 

SSraut, bride £tuft, cleft SDladt)t/ might 
SSruft/ breast Jlraft, force 50>lagb, maid 
gouft/ fist $ufy, cow SCRauS, mouse 



@au, sow 
©djnur/ string 
©efd)tt>u(jt, tu- 
mour 
<§tabt, town 
SBanb, wall 
28urjt, sausage 
3unft/ union. 



2Cu8fiud)t, eva- ^ufammenfunft, fftadftt/ night 

sion meeting 9iafyt f seam 

grud)t/ fruit £unjt/ art fRott)/ need 

©anS/ goose 

3. The following neuter monosyllabic Primitives, which, 
with the exception of gtof, Qifyov, and SRo^r/ do not modify : — 



S3anb, union glofi/ float 
SSeet, flower-bed ©am, yarn 
©tft, poison 



SBeil/ hatchet 
SSetn, leg 
S3ter, beer 
S3oot, boat 
S3rot/ bread 
Sing, thing 
Qjrj, ore 
gell, hide 
gejl, feast 
Sftotyt/ reed 
©at j, salt 
©djaaf/ sheep 



©tutf, luck 
«£arj, resin 
#aar, hair 
#eer, army 
#eft, handle 
#irn, brain 
Satyr, year 
Sod)/ yoke 
@djwein/ hog 
(Sett, rope 
(Sieb, sieve 



^inn, chin 
feus, cross 
^nte, knee 
£td)t, light 
Soog, lot 
SRaal/ mark 
S^at)t, meal 
Sttal, time 



Del, oil 
$)aar, pair 
$Pferb, horse 
Spfunb, pound 
f wit/ desk 
SKedjt, right 
Sftet)/ roe 
S^etcr)/ empire 



Sftteaf / measure $tff, cliff 
9Roo6, moss 9tteS/ ream 
9le£/ net Stop/ horse 

Sau, rope 5Bort, word 

&t)ter, animal SBracf, wreck 
Sfyor, gate ^elt, tent 



16 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

<£d)t(f, reed @pteO play £ud), cloth $tuq, stuff 
©chccf, 60 ©tucf, piece SBerf, work giel, aim. 

©chrot/ shot 

4. Derivatives, without modification of vowel : — 

a. The masculine and neuter words with the affixes anb/ at, 
i$t, tg, ling, tng, ridj : as, Sttonat, £6mg. 

b. The neuter derivatives, with the affixes ntjj and fat, and 
the few feminine words in nip/ as : SSettubmjj / (Sd)tc£fal/ &c. 

5. Those masculine and neuter substantives formed with the 
prefix ge : as, bag ©ebet. Most words of this class do not 
modify. 

Note. — A few, however, with the prefix ge/ form their plural in er. 
See § 22—4. 

All masculine Primitives compounded with other prefixes 
and particles : as, bet: SSefehl, ber SSorjug, &c. 

6. Most masculine and neuter foreign substantives having 
thrown off their foreign terminations : as, ber 33tfd)off, ber Ttttav, 
&c. Those which are masculine generally modify. 

Note. — In derivative substantives ending in at, tg, enb/ tng, ling, the 
vowel e in the termination of inflection of the genitive and dative singu- 
lar is frequently omitted, on account of euphony: e. g. beg 50lonat=g/ 
bem SOlonatj beg $6ntg=g/ bem $6ntg. The e in the dative singular is 
also dropped sometimes in monosyllabic substantives of an abstract 
signification, especially when used without an article, and in names of 
materials: e. g. aug ©tag/ mit gtetf $ con <Stahi/ mtt @olb. 

§ 22. 2nd Form, nom. plural in er. 
Singular. Plural. 

N. bag S3ud) N. bte SSucfcer 

G. beg SBucTjeg G. ber S3ud)er 

D. tem S3ud)e D. ben SSucfcern 

A. bag SSud) A. bie 93ud)er. 

To the Second Form belong: — 
1. The following monosyllabic Primitives of the neuter 
gender : — 

ttag/ carrion S3ab,.bath SSttb/ picture SSrett/ board 

%mt, office SSanb/ ribbon SBlatt, leaf 23ud> book 



DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 



17 



£)ad), roof 
5>orf/ village 
m, egg 
Bad)/ compart- 
ment 
$a$, cask 
gelb/ field 
©elb/ money 
©tag/ glass 
©lieb/ limb 
©rab/ grave 
©ca^/ grass 



©ut, estate 
^oupt/ head 
£au6/ house 
*£olj/ wood 
$uf)n, fowl 
£alb/ calf 
£inb/ child 
.ftont/ corn 
^raut/ herb 
£amm, lamb 
£anb/ land 
£id)t, light 



fitcb/ song 
Sod)/ hole 
Sttatyl/ repast 
Stttctul/ mouth 
SKenfd)/ wench 
s^eft/ nest 
^Dfanb/ pledge 
fRabf wheel 
SReiS/ twig 
SHtnb/ heifer 
(Sd)tlb/ sign- 
board 



@d)fof/ castle 

©djwert/ sword 
©ttft/ ecclesias- 
tical founda- 
tion 
Sfyal/ valley 
Sud)/ cloth 
SSot!/ people 
2Bamm§/ jacket 
SGSeib/ woman 
ffficrt/ word. 



2. The following masculine Primitives :- 



©etjt/ spirit 
©ott, God 
2eib/ body 
SJlanri/ man 



S3rt/ place 
Sftanb/ edge 
(Strauj?/ nose- 
gay 



SSalb/ wood SPSurm, worm 
S36[ettnd)t/ vil- SSormunb/ guar 



lain 



dian. 



3. All masculine and neuter derivatives in ti)\xm, as: ber 
3rrtf)um/ bo§ £ersogtt)um, &c. 

4. The following words formed with the prefix ge : ©emadj 
room, ©emuti) mind, ©efd)led)t gender, ©eft'djt face, ©efpenjt 
ghost, ©ewcmb garment. 

All substantives of this form of the complex order are sub- 
ject to a modification of vowel in the plural. 



§ 23. 3rd Form, nom. plural, without termination of 
Inflection. 
Singular. 
ber (Spiegel 
beS (SptegelS 
hem (Spiegel 



N 
G 
D 

A. ben (Spiegel 



Plural. 

N. bte (Spiegel 

G. ber (Spiegel 

D. ben (Sptegeln 

A. bte (Spiegel. 



After this form are declined — 
1. All masculine and neuter substantives ending in el/ en/ ev, 
c 3 



18 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

letn/ djen without modification of vowel in the plural, except 
the following masculine words, which must be modified : — 
2Ccfetr/ acre £anbel/ affair <Sd)nabel, beak 

SSrubeo brother Sfftctngel/ want SSogel/ bird 

jammer/ hammer 5fttantel> mantle gaben/ thread 

©cbroager/ brother-in-law SKabel/ needle ©arterv garden 

33ater, father Stctget, nail ©raben, ditch 

2Cpfet/ apple battel, saddle #afen/ harbour. 

Note. — The neuter substantive Softer is also modified in the plural. 

2. The two feminine words SKutter. and Socfctet with modifi- 
cation of vowel in the plural. 

3. The masculine word $ctfe cheese, and the neuter words 
ending in e compounded with the prefix ge/ as : ©eb&ube, ©etnalbe/ 
©ebirge, &c, without modification of vowel. 

Note. — "Words of this form of the Complex Order ending in n do not 
add another n in the dative plural. 

§ 24. — II. Simple Order. 

Singular. 
N. ber ©raf bte grew 

G. beS ©vafen bcr grau 

D. bem ©rafen ber grau 

A. ben ©rafen btc grau. 

Plural. 
N. tie ©tafen bte grauen 

G. bet ©rafen ber grauen 

D. ben ©rafen ben grauen 

A. bte ©rafen bte grauen. 

To the Simple Order of inflection belong only masculine 
and feminine substantives, the latter of which, however, remain 
entirely unchanged in the singular. It includes 
1. The following masculine monosyllables: — 
S&hv, bear ©raf/ count SJlenfcb/ man £>d}6/ ox 

(Styrtft, Christian £elb/ hero SJttobr/ moor $rtn$, prince 

gutft/ prince <%>tn, lord 9latv, fool Sbor/ fool, 

©ecf/ fool <$ixtt herdsman SKert), nerve 



DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 19 

Note. — To these must be added also the compounds, ber Untertfyatl/ 
the subject ; and ber S3orfafer/ the ancestor. 

2. Masculine names of persons and animals with two or 
more syllables terminating in e, as: ber Stnabtt the boy; ber #afc/ 
the hare ; ber Stuffe/ the Russian ; ber £)hm, the Dane, &c. 

3. All feminine substantives, except those mentioned above 
(§21, 2), as belonging to the Complex Order. 

4. Many foreign words, particularly those masculine words 
which terminate in e, t t ft/ fit as ber 2Cboocat 5 and those com- 
pounded with the Greek words ard> grapfc/ frat, tog/ norti/ fopft : 
e. g. ber ©eograpt). 

Note. — Substantives of the Simple Order ending in t or X t drop the 
vowel e in the terminations of inflection : e.g. bte §eber*n (not geber?en)/ 
tie ©abelsrt (not @abel=en). 

§ 25. MIXED OR IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 

1 . A few masculine and neuter substantives decline in the 
singular after the Complex Order (1st form), and in the plural 
after the Simple Order. They are the following : — 'JStaat 
state, (geftmerj pain, 2Cuge eye, SSett bed, (grbe legacy, ($tf corner, 
4?emb shirt, £etb sorrow, £)hr ear. 

2. Some substantives are declined as if the nominative sin- 
gular had the termination eti/ which in fact is given to those 
substantives by many of our best writers : e. g. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. ber Sftame bte Sftamen 

G. beg SKamenS ber 9tamen 

D. bem SKamert ten Seamen 

A. ben Seamen bte 5Ramen 

The following are declined after this manner : — gets rock, 
griebe peace, gunfe spark, ©ebanfe thought, ©laube faith, $aufe 
crowd, ©aamc seed, ©cfyabe damage, SSucfyjtctbe letter of the 
alphabet, SBitte will. 

The substantive 4?erj declines in the same way, except in the 
accusative, which has #erj like the nominative. 



20 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

§ 26. DECLENSION OF PROPER NAMES. 
Formation of the Plural. 

Names of Persons of the masculine gender form their plural, 
for the most part, like common names, after the Complex 
Order in e ( 1 st form), without modification of vowel, however, 
which proper names in fact never admit, as : Me gvtebericf^e, the 
Frederics, tie SBilfyelm-e, the Williams. 

Names of females follow the Simple Order in the plural : — 
bte 50tarte=n/ the Maries. 

In the singular the names of persons are generally declined 
like common words ; but, whether masculine or feminine, they 
are declined after the Complex Order, dropping, however, the 
e in the dative: e. g. N. grieberid), G. grteberid)g, D. grteberid), 
A. gitcbertd;. 

Names of females ending in e take en$ in the genitive, and 
en in the dative and accusative, as N. Caroline/ G. ,teolineng, 
D. $aroUnen/ A. ^aroltnen. 

Those names of males that end in ?/ {j/ \d), tt 5/ are also 
declined like the foregoing feminine names in e: e. g. N. ^Ravr 
G. SftayenS, D. SOtati/ A. ?dar.en. 

Proper names of countries, cities, &c. take only in the geni- 
tive an g : e. g. N. Sonbort/ G. SonbonS/ D. Sonbon, A. bonbon. 

Foreign names ending in \, %, \&), r, i, take in the genitive 
no termination at all, but the definite article or a preposition is 
then given to them, as : be§ XerreS, of Xerxes ; bem SonctS, to 
Jonas. 

Note. — Proper names are not inflected in the singular, when they have 
an article before them. 

§ 27. ADJECTIVES. 

The adjective is added to substantives to express a quality 
which may belong equally to things and beings of different 
kinds. 

According to their mode of relation, adjectives are either 
predicative or attributive. If adjectives are predicative, i. e. if 
they represent, in connection with the Copula \tin f to be, the 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



21 



predicate of the sentence, they are always indeclinable, as : 
ber SBSafyn ift furj, Me SKeu' ift long, illusion is short, repentance 
long, — Schiller. 2)aS 2Bort tft fret/ bic Zfyat ift jtumm/ bee 
©efyorfam blinb/ the word is free, the deed is mute, obedience 
blind. — Schiller. As attributives, however, i. e. if they are 
joined to a substantive to denote its quality, they are declinable : 
e. g. 2Md)' etn fremb*e§/ neu=e$ Sefcen ! What a strange, new life ! 
SSag ift ber lang=en Sftebe furj^et' ©inn ? What is the short mean- 
ing of this long speech ? — Schiller. 

Participles are also used as adjectives ; the present participle, 
however, cannot be used predicatively as in English (e. g. 
" / am writing" " / was sleeping," &c), but only attributively, 
as : ba$ fd)lafenb-e $inb/ the sleeping child. (§x wtrft fid) foinein in 
bte fcraufenb-e glut/ he throws himself down into the roaring 
flood. — Schiller. 

§ 28. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Every adjective, when used attributively, has two forms of 
inflection, viz. the Complex Order and the Simple Order. 

Note. — The inflection of the adjective in the Complex Order agrees 
with that of the article ber> bte/ ba§. 





I. COMPLEX ORDER. 






Singular. 

A 




Plural. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


For all genders 


N. gutter 


gut* 


gut^es 


guta 


G. gufeeS 


gutter 


gufces 


gufcet 


D. gukem 


gutter 


gukem 


gutsen 


A. guken 


• gut* 


gut^es 


gut^e 




II. SIMPLE ORDER. 






Singular. 




Plural. 


Mas. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


For all genders. 


N. gut=e 


gut^e 


gut=e 


gut= en 


G. guken 


guken 


gut=en 


gut^en 


D. guken 


gut=en 


gut^en 


guken 


A. guken 


gut=e 


gut=e 


gut*en 



22 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Note 1. — Instead of the termination eg in the genitive singular, mas- 
culine and neuter, of the Complex Order, the termination en is now 
generally preferred, as eine gfoftje alUm (instead of alfeeS) SGSetneS, a 
bottle of old wine. 

Note 2.— The neuter adjective frequently drops the termination e§ in 
the nominative and accusative singular: e. g. fcfjSrt SBetter/ fine weather. 
. @trt gebred)tid) SScfen ifr ba§ 2Betb, a fragile being is woman.— Schiller. 
Note 3. — Adjectives ending in el/ ett/ er, generally lose the vowel e in 
such terminations : e. g. etn ebter (instead of ebeUev) Stan, a noble- 
minded man. 

§ 29. ON THE USE OF BOTH ORDERS. 

1. The Complex Order is used when the adjective is not 
preceded by an article or pronoun : e. g. @utig=et* £tmmet ! kind 
heaven ! SS6f=e Zmte fucfyen immer ha$ Sunlte, Dad people always 
seek the dark. — Lessing. SKtt (ebfoaft?em S3Ktf, with lively look. 
(Simgfeit oortreffric^^er banner ijt roobtgeft'nnker. grauen febnltdj^er 
SSunfd), harmony of excellent men is the most ardent wish of 
well-disposed women. — G'dthe. 

2. The Simple Order is used, when the adjective is preceded 
by either an article or pronoun : e. g. %kz gefyt ber forgencolke 
Kaufman n unb ber tetd)tgefcJ)ur5t=e sptfger, ber anb&d)t'g=e 9ttond> ber 
bujtr-e dauber unb ber f)ettr=e ©ptetmann, ben (Saunter mit bem 
fdjroerbetaben=en SRojh benn jebe (Strafe fuftrt an§ (Snb' ber SBelt, 
here pass the anxious merchant and the lightly- equipped pil- 
grim, the devout monk, the gloomy robber, and the gay 
musician, the driver with the heavy-laden horse ; for every 
road leads to the end of the world. — Schiller. .Kennjr bu jene§ 
fd)6n=e Sanb ? knowest thou that beautiful country ? 

3. If, however, the adjective should be preceded by the in- 
definite article etn, by !etn/ or by one of the possessive pro- 
nouns metn, betn, fetn, ti>r/ unfer, euer, in the nominative, masculine 
and neuter, and accusative neuter of the singular, those words 
having in the cases just mentioned no terminations of inflection, 
the adjective must be declined after the Complex Order ; in 
the remaining cases, and in the plural, the adjective is declined 
after the Simple Order : e, g. — 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



23 



Singular, 
Mas. Fern. Neut. 

N. mein gutter. mcin s e gutse mein gut^es 

G. mein=e6 gut=en member guken mein=e§ gut^en 

D. meimem gut?en metier gut=en metn?em gut^en 

A. meimen gut=en mein=e gut=e mein gut=e£ 

Plural. 
N. mein=e gulden 
G. mein=er guken 
D. metn=en gut=en 
A. mein=e gut-en 
Examples. — £)aS ift etn garfh>er ©radje/ that is an ugly dra- 
gon. — Gothe. Safjt mir mein freUeg £e&en/ leave me my free 
life. Unfcr fdjon-eS £auS/ our beautiful house, jtetn angenehm=er 
Sag/ no pleasant day. 

Note. — Those syllables and single letters are called terminations of 
inflection which are added to the fundamental form of the substantive, 
adjective, pronoun, and to the root of the verb in their declension or 
conjugation : e. g. £anb=eS/ etn^em, finbseJT/ &c. Terminations of deriva- 
tion, on the contrary, are syllables joined to a word in order to form a 
new one : e. g. grei=t)eit from frew fleijMg from gleif, &c. 

4. If two or more adjectives without any preceding article 
or pronoun follow each other, they are in the nominative sin- 
gular declined after the Complex Order, but in the other cases, 
and in the plural, only the first is declined after the Complex 
Order, and all the following after the Simple Order : e. g. 



Singular. 
N. gut=er altser SEetn 
G. gut?e§ att^en SBeineS 
D. gut=em alt=en Sffieine 
A. gufeen altsen SSetn 



Plural. 
gut=e altsen SBeine 
gutter alt?en 2Setne 
guken alt-en SSSeinen 
guke altsen SGSeine 



Note. — If two adjectives are referred in a like manner to the substan- 
tive, and if the conjunction " unb" could be placed between them, they 
are both declined after the Complex Order : e. g. 91 ad) gutter, (unb) OXUii 
©ittC/ after good old fashion. SDlit fro^em (unb) Ui&ptm ©inn; with 
cheerful, easy mind. 



24 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 

5. The adjective receives the Complex inflection in the 
nominative and accusative plural after the following words : — 
eim'ge, etltdje some, mete many, mehrere several, wentge few, olle 
all, manage many, fotcfte such, anbere other, tt>e(d)e which : e. g. 
SStete gutse fieutc, many good people. 2Cnbere tt?td)tig=e 2>tnge/ 
other important matters. 

6. After the Cardinal numbers §tt?ei/ bret/ met/ &c, and after 
ctet/ tt>emg/ mebr/ roeniger/ if these words have no terminations of 
inflection, the adjective that follows them is declined after the 
Complex Order : e. g. 3tt?et Qut=e SJtt&nner/ two good men. SStel 
tatt=eS SBafier/ much cold water. 

7. When the adjective is preceded by a personal pronoun, it 
is declined after the Simple Order, excepting, however, the 
nominative and accusative singular, which have the Complex 
inflection : e. g. 3d) arm=er SJiamt/ I poor man. 2>u glucflid)=eg 
SBefetv thou happy being. SStr arm-en CeutC/ we poor people. 
Sir/ gufcen ©eele/ to thee, good soul, @ud> att=en ©efaftrtcn/ to 
you, old companions. 

§ 30. From the present declensions of the German adjec- 
tive (excluding the slight modifications in certain cases men- 
tioned under 4, 5, 7, of the preceding paragraph), we may 
deduce the following general law : — 

The attributive adjective always receives the Complex inflec- 
tion, when no article, or pronominal or numeral determinative 
word precedes it, or one of such which has no Complex inflec- 
tion. But, if the adjective is preceded by an article, pronominal 
or numeral determinative word having the Complex inflection, 
then it is declined after the Simple Order. 

Note.— £)tefer, iener, berfelbe/ berjemge, foidjer, roeld)er, aller/ eintger, 
etltdjer/ meler/.roeniger, jeber/ jegltcher, mehrer, »erfd)iebener/ are deter- 
minative words with Complex inflection. Qt\va$, genug/ allexUl, Cteler^ 
lei/ bergleid)eti/ tauter 5 sometimes also ml, roenig, mebr, and the 
numerals $ir>et/ brei/ XiieVr &c. (if they are not declined) are determinative 
words without inflection. The article Ctrl/ tilK, etH/ the pronouns metH/ 
bein, fetn/ unfei*/ CUer> ifyx, and hill, are determinative words with de- 
fective inflection. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 25 

§ 31. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

The comparative is formed by adding the syllable er to the 
predicative form of the adjective, as : fd)6n fine, fcbon^er: finer ; 
and the superlative by the addition of the syllable eft (ft), as : 
fd)6n fine, fd)5n=ft finest. 3m (grtenleben ftnt aerate Me Safyre fui'3, 
tie ScbenSalter nod) futjer/ unt taS Seben am f Stjeftcn 5 aber tie 
Sage ftnb tang, tie ©tunten nod) l&nger, unt tie SDfanuten oft 
(SmtgMten, in human life the years are short, the ages of man 
still shorter, and life shortest ; but days are often long, hours 
still longer, and minutes eternities. — Jean Paul. 

In declining adjectives in the above degrees, the terminations 
of inflection are put after the formative syllables er and eft (jt) 
of the comparative and superlative, as : etn fdion-et-eS $au£ a 
more beautiful house, ter fd)6n-ft-e ©arten the most beautiful 
garden, teg fup-eft-en SKktneS of the sweetest wine. Sag £eben tft 
ter ©titer fyod)fteS md)t, ter Uebel grojtes aber ift tie ©cfyult, life 
is not the best of possessions, but the greatest of evils is 
guilt.— Schiller. 

In primitive adjectives the .vowels a, 0, u must be modified 
in the comparative and superlative degrees, as : arm, drmer, 
5rmft, poor, poorer, poorest. 

Derivative adjectives (with two or more syllables), all 
those which have the diphthong au, and the following primi- 
tives, are not subject to a modification of vowel : — 

bunt gerate larg morfd) runt fdjtanf fhtmm 

falb gtatt fnapp nacft fad)t fd)toff jtumpf 

fate f)o£>t (a^m $\att fanft jtolj toll 

flad) ijolt lofe plump fatt fitarr t>oll 

frof) faf)l matt rot) fd)Iaff ftraff gafmt. 

The following are irregular in the comparative and super- 
lative degrees: — 

nat)e, near Comp. — nafyer Superl — nad)jt 

t)od), high tyof)er t)6d)fr 

gut, good beffer bejjt 

met, much mefyr metjifc. 

D 



26 PRONOUNS. 

The comparative is formed with. mef)t more, if a comparison 
of two qualities relates to the same subject, e. g. @ie roar mefyr 
f d}rcad) 0I6 firanf, she was more weak than ill. (Sr war mefyr 
lufrig olg trauricj, he was more gay than sad. 

In a comparison, the conjunction mie as, is used after the 
positive, and alg ^aw, after the comparative degree, e. g. (Sr 
ijt efcen fo alt mie fte/ he is just as old as her. 9ttd)tg iffc. 
\)erad)tUdjcc aU traurtger SBi^ nothing is more contemptible than 
bad wit. — Schlegel. 

The superlative is formed also with am meiften most, f)6d)jt in 
the highest degree, fefyr very, uberaug exceedingly, aujjevjt ex- 
tremely, e. g. <5r ijt am meiften geefyrt, he is most honoured ; 
t}6d;ft befd)etben/ most modest; ein duferjt bummer £eri/ an*ex- 
tremely stupid fellow. £5te Sftatur beg SOtenfcfyen iffc einc fefyr 
ijinfaUtge (gcfyonfyett/ the nature of man is a very perishable 
beauty. — Wieland* 

§ 32. PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns, as their name shows, are words used instead of 
nouns, in order to avoid their too frequent repetition. As 
nouns are partly substantive, partly adjective, the pronouns are 
also substantive and adjective. 

They are divided into three classes, viz. Personal, Demon- 
strative, and Relative. 

§ 33. — I. Personal Pronouns. 

Substantive, viz. — 

a. Definite : \6) I, bu thou, et he, fte she, eS it. 

b. Indefinite : man one (French, on), eg it. 

c. Reciprocal : ftd) einanbetv one another. 

d. Reflective : fid)/ one's self. 

Adjective, called also Possessive, viz. — 

mdx\ my, betn thy, fein his, tyx her, unfer our, euer your, 
tt)r their. 



declension of pronouns. 27 

Inflection of the Definite Personal Pronouns. 

Singular. 

Mas. ■ ' Fem. Neut. 

N. id), I bU/ thou er, he fte, she eg, it 

G. meinev, of me beincr, of thee feinet/ of him tfyrer, of her feineS/ of it 
D. mir/ to me bit/ to thee tym, to him ihv, to her if)m, to it 
A. mid), me bid)/ thee tfyn, him |te, her eg, it. 

, -*- , 

• Plural. Plural. 

N. ttrir, we thr, you N. fte, they 

G. unfer, of us euer, of you G. t£)rer, of them 

D. ung, to us eud), to you D. ifynen, to them 

A. ung, us eud), you A. fte, them. 

Notel. — The forms of the genitive singular mein, betn, fettt/ ihr, in 
stead of meinev, betner, feiner, ihrcr, are used only in poetry: eergif? 
mein nid)t, forget me not. 

Note 2. — All respectable persons are now universally addressed in the 
third person plural: Norn. @te you (literally "they"), Gen. Sfyut of 
you, Dat. 3fynen, to you, Ace. <Ste you. Inferior persons are some- 
times addressed by the third person singular: (Sc he, (Ste she. Amongst 
intimate friends and relations the second person singular £)U thou, is 
also used. 

The indefinite pronouns man one, and eg it, are much more 
frequently used in German than in English. ?0?an is only con- 
nected with verbs in the singular, as: man fagt people say; but 
eg is employed for both singular and plural, as : eg ftnb u>entg 
£)ienet tie greunbe iljrer. £ert:en, few servants are the friends of 
their masters — Lessing. (§g tft nid)t genua,, §u nufjen, man mup 
auch anwenben 5 eg ift nid)t genug, &u mollen, man mufj auty thun, it 
is not enough to know, one must also apply ; it is not enough 
to be willing, one must also act. — Gbthe. 

§ 34. Reflective Pronouns. 

Singular. 
1st pers. Dat. — mtr, to myself Aceus. — mid), myself 
2nd „ „ btr, to thyself „ bid), thyself 

3rd „ „ fid), to himself, &c. „ [id), himself, &c. 



28 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 



Plural. 
1st per. Dat. and J ecus. — un§/ to ourselves and ourselves 
2nd „ „ „ eutf), to yourselves and yourselves 

3rd „ „ „ ftd), to themselves and themselves. 

§ 35. Adjective or Possessive Pronouns. 

When united to a substantive they take the forms ntettt/ betn> 
fetn, tyv, unfer, euer/ ihr, and are then declined in the singular, 
like the indefinite article ettv etne, em, and in the plural accord- 
ing to the complex inflection of adjectives. 

If, however, the substantive to which the pronoun refers be 
omitted, then the pronoun has the full complex inflection of 
adjectives : e. g. ©etn £oo§ tft ntetneS, his fate is mine. £5ein 
©arten ift fd)6ner aU metner, thy garden is more beautiful than 
mine. But if the pronoun should be preceded by the definite 
article ber, Me, bctS, it takes the simple inflection of adjectives : 
e. g. $Dein ©arten tft fcfioner ats ber mettle, thy garden is more 
beautiful than mine. £>an 2Beg tft frummj et ift ber mettle 
ntdjt, thy road is crooked ; it is not mine. — Schiller. 

Note.— Instead of this latter form, ber ttieirte/ bet betne, &c, is gener- 
ally used bet metntge, ber betntge, ber feintge/ ber unfrtge, ber eurtge* 
ber tfyrtge/ which have the simple inflection of adjectives : e. g. ©etn 
Sftam' tft $rteblanb$ aud) ber Metnige/ his name is Friedland; so is 
mine. — Schiller. 

$ 36. — II. Demonstrative Pronouns. 

Substantive, viz. — (Stner, etne, etneS, one. 

£5er, bie f ba$t this or that one. 
Seber, iebe, iebeS, every one. 
(Sttr-aS, something. 
9ttd)tS, nothing. 
Semanb, somebody. 
SKiemanb, nobody. 

Adjective, viz. — etn, etne, etn, one. 

ber, tie/ baZt this, that, 
ieber, iebe, iebeS, each. 



DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 



29 



tiefer, btefe/ biefeS, this. 

jenetv jene, jeneS, that. 

bevjenige, btejentge/ baSjenige/ this, that. 

folcfyer, fotdje, foXrfje^/ such. 

berfelbe, biefctbc/ baSfelbe> "j , 

> trip mvriP 

berfelbige/ btefeibige, baSfetbige, J 

3eber ; fctcfcr/ jenet and foldjer/ are inflected after the complex 
order of adjectives. Serjemge declines doubly, bee like the 
definite article, and jentge after the simple order of adjectives. 
In the same manner are declined berfelbe and berfetbtge. Ex. : — 
2£te uxjbr t|t'^ roaS 'jener greunb con feinem greunbe ftngt: Seine 
Stebe mar mir mehr alS gvauenliebe/ how true is that which one 
friend sings of another : " Thy love was more to me than 
woman's love." — Herder. (Sin ^inb nur bin id) gegen fotdje 
'SDSaffen/ I am but a child against such weapons. — Schiller. 

Note. — The indeclinable demonstrative pronoun fetbft (fetber)/ is 
always used in connection with a substantive, or substantive pronoun, 
and has an exclusive signification when it follows its noun, e. g. ber 33ctter 
felbjt ijl gefommen, the father himself is come. 3d) ftlber ^nn fie 
retten, I myself can save her. £)u felbft muf t richteti/ 25u altcin/ thou 
thyself must pronounce judgment, thou alone. — Schiller. When it pre- 
cedes the word to which it refers, it corresponds to " even " in English : 
e. g. (Selbft feine geinbe ctd)ten ihri/ even his enemies esteem him. ©elbft 
£)u l;aft ibm nicbt getraut, even thou hast not trusted him. 

3emanb and niemanb take in the genitive the termination e§, 
and in the dative and accusative en> or no termination at all : 
e.g. 3d) i)6re 3emanben lommen, I hear some one coming. 

@old)er/ with ein or fetn before it, follows the simple order of 
adjectives in all those cases in which ein or lein receive termi- 
nations of inflection. Instead of ein foldjer is often used fold) etn, 
but then fold) is indeclinable : e. g. ein fold)er 2Cuftrag febreeft 
mid) nid)t, mit foldjen @d)dt3en lann id) bienen, such a commission 
frightens me not, with such treasures I can serve you. — Gothe. 
©old) ein OBetter, such weather, ©old) ein SKenfd), such a man. 

25er/ bie/ ba$ t as a pronoun substantive, takes beffen, beren, beffen/ 
in the genitive singular, bereiv in the genitive plural, and, if 
used instead of the personal pronoun, becen. In the dative 

d3 



30 DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 

plural it has benen. Ex. : 2af tie hinauSgef)en/ let those go out. 
35a3 roar em 3ufaU/ that was chance. 

Note. — £)er/ btC/ ba§/ are frequently used instead of the personal pro- 
nouns Wr ft'e/ e$/ &c. 

@ttt?a§ and ntd)t§ are not declined : 2>d) fyobt nidf)ts al€ metn 
Ceben/ I have nothing but my life. 

§ 37. — III. Relative Pronouns. 

Substantive. — 2Ber/ who. 3Ba§/ what. 

Adjective. — roeldjer wetcfre tt>eid)eS ^ 

. ... . . ? who, which. 

ber btc bag $ ' 

tt>aS fur einer/ what sort of. 

Note. — The adverbial pronoun fo has also the power of a relative, but 
as such is now only found in poetry. 

The relative pronouns are used also as Interrogatives, viz : — 
SBSer, tva$ f tt>etd)er/ and roa§ fur einer. SBer/ without distinction 
of gender, indicates a person, and roa§ a thing ; both, however, 
in the most indefinite manner. 2Md)er, as an interrogative, is 
used to point out an individual person or thing of several per- 
sons or things of the same kind. SOSaS fur einer/ indicates what 
particular sort of things or persons is meant. 

SQSer who, and n?aS what, have no plural, and are declined 
as follows : — 

N. mvt who roaS/ what 

G. roeffen, whose roeffen/ of what 

D. njem/towhom 



A. wen/ whom n>a$/ what. 

Ex. : 38er in ben £Batb geben wilU mufl fid) nidjt wor SSaren unb 
SBolfen furd)ten/ he who wishes to go into the wood, must not 
fear bears and wolves. — Klinger. SBSer beftfct/ ber levne oerlteren i 
roer im ©lutf tft/ ber lerne ben (Sd)mer$/ let him who has posses- 
sions learn to lose — let him who is happy learn to suffer. — 
Schiller. 2Ba£ Qibt e6? what is the matter? ©age mir/ mit 
wem bu umQefyeft/ fo fage id) bix, n>er bu bijt : rcetfj id)/ womxt bu bid) 



NUMERALS. 31 

&efd)&fttge|t/ fo rcetfi id)/ \va& auS bir mxhtn fami/ tell me your 
associates, I will tell you who you are : if I know with what 
you occupy yourself, I know what can become of you. — G'Othe. 

In nxtg fur ctneiv the numeral einer only is declined ; einer is 
entirely omitted in the plural, and also with names of materials 
in the singular : e. g. 2BaS fur em £auS ift bte£ ? what house is 
this ? 2Ba§ fur SSerge/ was fur. SBujren/ roaS fur @tr5me trennen ung 
nod) ! what mountains, what deserts, what streams still separate 
us. — Lessing. 

£5er/ btC/ bag/ who, which, as a pronoun relative, is declined 
in the following manner : — 





Singular. 




Plural. 




A 






r 
Masc. 


Fem. 


Neut. 




N. bet 


bte 


bag 


bie 


G. beffen 


beren 


beffen 


beren 


D. hem 


ber 


bem 


benen 


A. ben 


bte 


ba$ 


bie 



Note. — Set*/ th/ bag is always used in preference to tt)Cld;er/ in the 
genitive case, if it refer to a person. 

3Bela>er/ n>eld)=e/ r»eld;=eg/ receives the complex inflection of 
adjectives. 

§ 38. NUMERALS. 

There are two kinds of numerals, Definite and Indefinite* 
1. The definite numerals are again divided into : — 



Cardinals. 


Ordinals. 


1 ein 


erjlet/ e/ eg/ first 


2 jroei 


Shelter/ z, eg, second 


3 brei 


britter/ &c, third 


4 met 


merier 


5 funf 


funfter 


6 fed)S 


fed)jrer 


7 ffeben 


ft'ebenter 


8 ad)t 


adjter 



32 


NUMERALS. 


9 neun 




neunter 


10 jefcn 




^nter 


11 elf 




elfter 


12 jw&lf 




8»6lfter 


.13 breiseijn 




bretsehnter 


14 oterje^n/ &c. 




trier jefonter, &c. 


20 gwanjtg 




awanjtgfter 


21 ein unb groan^tg 


&C. 


etn unb gwansigfter 


30 brctftg 




breiftgftcr 


40 merjtg 




mergtgfter- 


50 funfsig 




funfetgjter 


60 fetfgtg 




fecfjjigfter 


70 ftebenjtg 




jtebenjigftet 


80 adjtjtg 




acfyrgigfter 


90 neunjtg 




neunjtgfier. 


100 *)unbert 




fiunbertjler 


101 bunbert unb em 




fcunbert unb erftet 


1000 taufenb 




faufenbjter 


10,000 je&ntaufenb 




§ei)n taufenbftcr 


1,000,000 eine Pinion. 




mftltonfter. 



(Sin/ in connection with a substantive, is inflected like the 
indefinite article etn, a : e. g. ein 50lanrt/ one man. With the 
definite article before it, etn has the simple inflection of adjec- 
tives : ba$ etn=e 4?auS/ tne one house. 

Note. — (§,in$/ as a substantive and in the neuter gender, is used in 
counting : e. g. tie ©locfe fie bonnert etn m&cfrttgeS (Sing, the clock (it) 
thunders a powerful one. — Gothe. 

3tt>et and bret take sometimes er in the genitive, and en in the 
dative, as ; SmUzt 3eugen 9Kunb madjt aUz SftSahrheit funW the 
mouth of two witnesses makes known all truth. — Proverb. 3d) 
fcabe eg bret=en gefagt/ 1 told it to three. 

The cardinal numbers from four to twelve (seven excepted), 
take in the nominative, genitive, and accusative, the ending e/ 
and in the dative en/ but only when the substantive is omitted : 
e.g. <Steb mid) uerjtoflen/ Gutter btefer- funf 5 e/ see me rejected, 
mother of these five. — Gothe. 



NUMERALS. 33 

All ordinal numbers are declined in both orders, complex and 
simple, of the adjective. 

Those numerals that are compounded with tjalb half, do not 
decline. They are formed thus : — 

lh anberttjalb/ one and a half, 

2| brittefjalb. 

3 1 mertetjalb/ &c. 

Those fractional numbers compounded with tel (Sfyetl), as : 
SDrtttel third part, 23iertel fourth, &c, have the complex inflection 
of substantives (3d form). 

§ 39. — 2. Indefinite Numerals. 

They include the following words : jebet/ jegltd)er/ jebrceber, 
each ; all/ all ; mefyrere/ several ; mefyr/ more ; met/ much ; marine/ 
many ; etlidfoe, einige/ some ; ttjenio,/ little ; ganj/ whole ; letner/ 
none ; anber, other. 

They are used both as adjectives and substantives: e.g. 
2£lle 5$enfd)en ftnb fterblid)/ all men are mortal. @§ iji ab(d)eulid)/ 
tt?te bie 3ett cergefyt/ nrie 2CIIeS ft<f> eer&nbert unb ein (Snbe nftnmt/ it 
is dreadful how time passes, how everything changes, and 
comes to an end. — Gothe. 

3eber/ iegltdjeo and iebweber/ are only used in the singular, 
and decline in both orders after the manner of adjectives : jeber. 
^ugenblitf tft tfyeuer/ every moment is precious. 

2HI has the complex inflection of adjectives : e. g. SBitb eg 
nid)t alle Sage fd)limmer ? does it not grow worse every day ? 

(Stlicfje/ etnige/ mefyrere/ manner are, with the exception of 
manager, only used in the plural, and are inflected after the 
complex order of adjectives : e. g. Sen!' id) W ^etten gurud!/ roie 
mana>e 5Rad;t id) ben SCRonb fd>on bort erroartet/ unb fdjon fo mand)en 
Sttorgen bie (Sonne/ when I recall the past — how many nights 
have I there waited for the moon, how many mornings for 
the dawn. — Gothe, 

93tel/ ttenig and wentger (less), are declined in both orders of 
the inflection of adjectives, but remain generally unaltered if 
they signify quantity : 3d) fa>eige &u SSieUm jtill ? benn id) mag bit 



34 VERBS. 

SCRenfrfjen nid)t trre madjen, I remain silent on many things ; for I 
do not like to confound people. — Gothe. @S til fefyr rcenig SBSaffev 
im SSrunnen, there is very little water in the well. 

sKetjv is indeclinable : 3d) !enne mefcr 50ien(d)en al§ bu, I know 
more people than thou. 

@an§ is declined like the adjective in both orders : before 
neuter proper names of towns and countries, however, it is not 
declined : SBte glucflid) ift ber/ ber, urn fid) mit bzm ©d)td:fal in 
(Stnigfett gu fe§en/ nidjt fetn gauges uorfyergebenbeS £eben rcegjiwerfen 
braudjt, how happy is he, who, in order to reconcile himself with 
fate, needs not throw away his whole preceding life. — -Gothe. 
@anj Sonbon \vei$ eg/ all London knows it. 

Reiner is declined like the possessive pronouns metneo beinetv 
&c, as : 2Mte ©otr, eg gabe Mne unruhtge .Kopfe in 2)eutfd)lanb/ 
would to God, there were no turbulent heads in Germany, — 
Gothe. £)u ttrirjr fttngefyr./ n>o fetn Sag mehr- fdjetnet/ thou wilt go 
where the day shines no more. — Schiller. 

2Cnber declines in both orders of the adjective : (So ft'nb ftc 
aUit (Stner ttrie bee 2Cnbere> so are they all, one like another. 
£ommen @te etn anbereS %Rah come another time. 2)er (Sd)aufyte(er 
mup ben augenbtttfttdjen SSetfatl f)od)fd)atjen, benn er erfyalt feinen anbern 
Cobii/ the actor must esteem highly the applause of the moment, 
for he receives no other reward. — Gothe. 

§ 40. VERBS. 

The verb, the soul of speech, and without which no sentence 
can be formed, denotes existence, growth, action, or suffering, 
as : fetn to be, roetben to grow, fefctagen to beat, leiben to suffer. 

Note 1. — The chief attribute of the verb is activity or motion, in op- 
position to the substantive which expresses the notion of an existence, 
concrete, or abstract, as: fttejkn to flow — $Iltf$ river, glutlj flood. 
Saufen to run — Sauf course, gdufer runner. £af[en to hate— <$a$ 
hate. Cteben to love — £iebe love. The opposition of activity and 
existence in the empire of ideas and of language, has its prototype in the 
opposition of matter and motion in the phenomena of physical nature 
that surrounds man, and which first gave to him, through the medium of 
his senses, matter and excitement for thinking. 



VERBS. 35 

Note 2. — The verb also is the only word in language by which a 
judgment can be enounced, and as in every sentence an enunciation is 
contained, there can be no sentence without a verb. 

By one single verb a whole sentence may be expressed: 

fprtcl) speak, geb' go. 

The Verb is called, 

1. Neuter, when it denotes neither action nor suffering: 
e. g. fdjetnen to shine, fdjfafen to sleep. 

2. Active, when activity and energy are expressed : laufen 
to run, fdjreiben to write. 

The Active Verb is called, 

a. Intransitive, when the activity is represented as merely 
limited to the subject : e. g. dx geftt, he walks, dr. fommr, he 
comes, Qx faUt/ he falls. 

Note. — Those verbs which require an object in the genitive or dative 
case, although usually classed with the intransitives, may be called objec- 
tive verbs : e. g. 3d) 9cbenfe metneS greunbeS/ I remember my friend. 
@C btlft mix i he helps me. 

b. Transitive, when the action operates upon an object, as : 
3d) fdjrei&e etnen SBricf/ 1 write a letter, (gr (djldgt thit/ he beats 
him. &{M mctdjt SEftutty/ success makes courage. 

Note. — All transitive verbs govern the accusative case. 

c. Reciprocal, when the activity denotes a reciprocal opera- 
tion, as : tie Sprannen reicften fid) tie #&nbe/ the tyrants give to 
each other their hands. — Schiller. 

d. Reflective, when subject and object are one and the same 
person or thing, as : foil bev. greoel fid) uor unfetn 2(ugen wUenben ? 
shall the crime be completed -before our eyes ? — Schiller. (5x 
fdjdmt fid), he is ashamed. 

Note. — Reflective verbs express always the notion of an intransitive 
action, the object of the action being represented by the accusative of the 
reflective pronoun, as: mid)/ bid)/ fid)/ unS/ eud). 

The transitive verb has a double form or voice : — 

1. The active, as : id) lobe/ I praise. 

2. The passive, as : id) reerbe gelobt/ I am praised. 



36 



VERBS. 



The Verb is called, 



Impersonal, when it expresses the activity of an indefinite 
subject. Such verbs are used only in the third person singular. 
In German, the indefinite subject of these verbs is represented 
by the pronoun eg. For instance : eg bonnert, it thunders ; eg 
regnet/ it rains ; eg fdjnett, it snows ; eg blifct/ it lightens. 

§ 41. Auxiliary Verbs. 

There are two kinds of auxiliary verbs in German : — 

1. Auxiliary verbs of tense, as : fein to be, fraben to have, 
rcevben to become, which express the relations of time in the 
predicate, as : 3>d) bin gefommcrt/ I am come. £>ie (Stunbe irirb 
fdjfagen/ the hour will strike. 

2. Auxiliary verbs of mood, as : fonnen to be able, burfen to 
be permitted, mogen may, iroHen to be willing, fotten shall, 
mujfen to be obliged, Xaffen to let ; all of which express some 
relation of mood, i. e. of possibility or of necessity : e. g. 3d) 
lann ftngen, 1 can sing. (Sr mufj untergehen, he must perish. 

§ 42. Moods and Tenses. 

The following forms of mood are distinguished in the conju- 
gation of the verb : the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Condi- 
tional, and the Imperative. 

The following are the forms of tense : the Present, Imperfect, 
Perfect, Pluperfect, and the Future and Past Future tenses. 

The Present and Imperfect of the active voice are simple, 
and all the others compound tenses. 

§ 43. The Infinitive. 

The infinitive expresses the meaning of the verb in the most 
general manner : e. g. Iteben to love. 

Note. — "When the particle JU is connected in the infinitive with a 
separable compound verb, it is placed between the root and the separable 
particle, as: CtUggugcI;er>/ to go out. 



VERBS. 37 

The infinitive is used without ju : — 

1. After the words butfeii/ fonnen/ mogen/ mujfcn, toflen/ fotfen/ 
wotfen and werben/ as : id) will gefyen/ I will go. 

2. After the verbs fyetjjen to bid, fyelfen to help, fyoren to hear, 
leaven to teach, lernen to learn, fefyen to see, and futjlen to feel : 
e. g. 3d) t)5re tt)n fommcri/ I hear him coming. 

§ 44. The Participle. 

The participle derives its name from its nature, which parti- 
cipates both of the verb and the adjective. Like the former, 
it indicates existence and action, and when used attributively, 
it has the genders, declension, and degrees of comparison in 
common with the latter. 

There are two participles in German : — 

1. The present participle with active and neuter significa- 
tions : liefcenb loving, errbtfyenb blushing. 

2. The past participle, which in connection with fyctben has 
an active, with fetn a passive and neuter, and with u>erbcn a 
passive signification : e. g. 3d) fya&e gelobt, I have praised. 3d) 
bin geltebt/ I am loved. 3d) rcerbe gefd)lageri/ I am beaten. 

The present participle is formed by adding enb to the root of 
the verb : tteb=enb loving. 

The past participle is formed from the root by increasing it 
with the affixes et (t), or en, and by prefixing ge to the root, as : 
ge=lieb=et (ge=Uebst) loved, Qe=fel)=en seen. The vowel of the root 
is frequently changed into another : ge^fung^en sung. 

The past participle is formed without the prefix ge : 

1. In all verbs compounded with the inseparable prefixes 
be/ emp/ ent/ etv ge/ \>er and ger/ as : entfagt renounced, befot)leu 
commanded. 

2. In all verbs ending in tvem as : regtett governed. 

3. In all inseparable compounds (i. e. if they throw the 
accent upon the verb : burd)ge't)en) formed with burd)/ um/ ttriber/ 
nrieber/ unter, uber/ fytnter/ tioll and mtp/ as : ubevfe'^t translated, 
tjintevga'ngen deceived. 

In all verbs compounded with separable particles the prefix 



38 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



ge enters between the root and the particle, e. g. auSgegangen 
gone out, angefangen begun. 

Note. — SBerbetl makes Worberi/ if, as an auxiliary, it is connected with 
another past participle, as : id) bin geliebt roorben/ I have been loved ; 
but otherwise, it has gercorben, e.g.: (S& ift fd)5n geroorben, it has 
become fine. 

§ 45. CONJUGATION. 

There are two distinct forms of conjugation, viz. the Com- 
plex Order and the Simple Order. 

Note. — Grammarians of the old school of German philology have con- 
sidered verbs of the Complex Order to be irregular, and have arranged 
them accordingly ; but with what little propriety will hereafter appear. 

§ 46. Roots of Verbs. 

The root is that part of the verb which remains after de- 
priving the infinitive of its termination of inflection en, and of 
the prefixes and particles, if there should be any, e. g. ftnb/ reb/ 
fang/ feht, geh, fteb are the roots of the verbs finben/ rebeti/ fangem 
befchten, entgehcn, aufftehen. 

All roots are monosyllabic. 

§ 47.— I. COMPLEX ORDER OF CONJUGATION. 

The Complex Order comprises only primitive verbs, and its 
principal sign of distinction is the change of vowel of the root 
in the imperfect and past participle, as : ftngen to sing, fang 
sang, gefungen sung; fpred;en to speak, fprad) spoke, gefprod&en 
spoken. 

The vowels a, o, u in the imperfect of the subjunctive mood 
are subject to modification, as: id) fdnge I might sing; id) 
fprcidjc I might speak. 

Note — Those verbs of the complex order which have in the infinitive 
the radical vowel Zi or the modified sounds a, b> change these into i or 
it in the second and third persons of the present tense indicative, and 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 39 

such as have in the infinitive the radical vowel a or 0/ modify them into 
5/ 6/ in the same second and third persons of the present tense indicative, 
e. g. brechett to break, b\X bvid)ft thou breakest, er bricbt he breaks. 
gaUen to fall, bu f&tlji thou fallest, a faUt he falls. The following 
verbs, however, neither change nor modify their vowels : berDegeri/ Qeben* 
genefen, Qahren, faltert/ fragem hauen, fteben, lafcen, melfen, pfleqen, 
rufen/ fdjaffert/ fallen/ (patten/ fdEjcrcn/ fd)n;aren/ fchtooren and ftehen. 



§ 48.— II. SIMPLE ORDER OF CONJUGATION. 

The Simple Order of inflection is employed to conjugate 
derivative verbs, and such primitive verbs as in the course of 
time have lost the power of changing the vowel of the root, 
and have adopted the Simple Order of conjugation. Verbs 
that follow this order leave the root entirely unchanged, as : 
lob-en to praise, loMc praised, ge=tob=t praised. 

Note. — The terminations tit teft/ U t teu f Ut, ten in the imperfect of 
the simple order, are considered to be mutilated forms of the verb tfyttn 
to do, imperfect tfyat did. This verb tfyun is used in some Germanic 
languages as an auxiliary, and is found as such sometimes in the present 
language, especially in poetry and in popular dialects: e. g. £>te 2Cugen 
tpten tfim fin! en: tranf me einen Sropfen mttyz.—Gdthe. 

The two orders of conjugation differ in the terminations of 
the past participle as well as in those of the imperfect. 

§ 49. IRREGULAR VERBS. 

A few primitive verbs are irregular. Their irregularity 
consists in mixing the two orders together in an anomalous 
manner, preserving the change of vowel of the complex order, 
but taking at the same time the terminations peculiar to the 
simple order, e. g. brtngen to bring, bvafyte brought, ge»brad)st 
brought. 

§ 50. The number of those primitive verbs which have 
preserved to the present time the principle of changing the 
radical vowel, is about 200. Our language has gradually lost 
more than one-half of the complex verbs since the ninth 
century. 



40 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



Note 1. — The change of vowel (2CWctut off-sound) in primitive verbs, 
which is peculiar to all Germanic languages, must be considered as one of 
their principal beauties. It is a noble remnant of those times in which 
our language still possessed its fullest power, and was distinguished more 
than it is at present by an abundance of rich, harmonious and beautiful 
forms of inflection as well as of formation. 

Note 2. — The power and harmonious beauty of this internal change of 
sound in primitive verbs would be felt very strikingly, if we were to use 
the simple mode of inflection in preference to the complex; for instance, 
in the verb ftngen/ imperfect fingte/ past participle geftngt/ instead of 
fingeri/ fang/ gefungenj or in binben/ binbete/ gebtnbet/ instead of binben/ 
banb/ gebunben. 



§ 51. AUXILIARY VERBS OF TENSE. 

<Sein to be. 

Present. 
Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Sing. 3d) bin/ I am. Sing. 3d) fet/ I may be. 

£)u btjr/ thou art. ®u feiejt 

Gr/ fie/ e6 ijt/ he, she, it is. <5r fet. 

Ptur. SOSit finb/ we are. Plur. 5GBit feten. 

3f)t feib/ you are. 3*)t feiet. 

<3te finb/ they are. <5ie feien. 

Imperfect. 



Sing. 3d) Wat/ I was. 

£)u roarejt/ thou wast. 

<5r mar/ he was. 
Plur. SSSit rcaten/ we were. 

3fyt water/ you were. 

(Sie roaren/ they were. 



Sing. 3d) wave/ I might be. 

£)u n?are|r. 

<5t roare. 
Plur. 2Bit iraren. 

3r)r roatet. 

<5te tt)dven. 



3d) bin geroefen/ 
I have been, &c. 

3d) roar geroefen/ 
I had been, &c. 



Perfect. 



Pluperfect. 



3d) fei geroefen/ 
I may have been. 

3d) ro&re gercefen/ 
I might have been. 



wm 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



41 



Indicative. 

Sing* 3d) roerbe fttn 
I shall be 
£u wirffc fetn 
<5r ttni'b fein 

/7«r. SStr werben fetn 
3fyr trerbet fein 
©ie rcerben fein. 



Future. 



Plur 



Subjunctive, 

3d) raerbe fein 
I should be. 
*Du rcerbeft fein 
@r tr-erbe fein 
SBir werben fein 
3t)r werbet fein 
@te werben fein. 



Past Future. 
3d) roerbe gewefen fein 3d) werbe cjewefen fetn 

I shall have been, &c. I shall have been, &c. 

Conditional. 

Singular. Plural. 

3d) wurbe fein/ 2Sir ttmrben fein. 

I would or should be. 3fyr ir-urbet fein. 

25u wfirbejl fein. ©ie wurben fein. 

(Sr nmrbe fetn. 

Past Conditional. 

3d) wurbe gewefen fein/ 

I would or should have been, &c. 

Imperative. 
Sing. 2d pers. — ©ei be. Plur. 2d pers. — <Setb be 

Infinitive. Participle. 

Pres. <Sein/ to be, Pres. (Seienb/ being. 

Past, ©ewefen fein/ to have been. Past, ©ewefen/ been. 

<Setn to be, serves generally for the formation of the perfect 
and pluperfect tenses of intransitive verbs : id) fcin gegangen/ I 
am gone. 

Note. — The great irregularity of this verb is explained from its being 
composed, even in the most ancient times, of several different roots. 

E 3 



42 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

§ 52. $ a b e n, to have. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Present. 
Sing. 3d) §&&*/ I have. Sing. 3d) f)abe, I may have. 

2>u ijaft. £)u tyafrejh 

P/wr. SBic fyaben. P£wr. SSic tyafcen. 

©ie fyaben. ©ie fjafcen. 
Imperfect. 

Sing. 3d) fyatk, I had. &'w^. 3d) fyatte, I might have. 

©u^tttteft. SDu ^atteft. 

@* |>atte. <5c ^dttc. 
P/wr. SBSit fatten. Plur. SOStr fatten. 

3*)t ^attet. 3fy fyattet. 

©te fatten. @tc fatten. 
Perfect. 

3d) tyafce gc^abt/ 3d) tyafce styabt, 

I have had, &c. I may have had, &c. 

Pluperfect. 

3d) t»attc Q^abt, 3d) t)fitte Qtyabt, 

I had had, &c. I might have had, &c. 

Future. 

3d) roerbe tyabtn, 3d) tterbe tyabzn, 

I shall have, &c. I shall have, &c. 

Past Future. 

3d) werbe Qtyabt fyafcen, 3d) toerbe Qtyabt tyaUn, 

I shall have had, &c. I shall have had, &c. 

Conditional. 
3d) tt?urbc tyct&en/ I would have, &c. 

Past Conditional. 
3d) ttnhbe Qe^abt tjaben/ I would have had, &c. 

Imperative. 
Sing, 2d per s. Jgcibtt have. Plur. 2d pers. <%>abet f have. 



conjugation of verbs. 43 

Infinitive. Participle. 

Pres. $aUr\r to have. Pres. v^afcenb/ having. 

Past, ©efya&t §aUn, have had. Past. Qdefyabt, had. 

With i)abzn are conjugated the perfect and pluperfect tenses 
of transitive, reflective and impersonal verbs, as : er 1t)<xt bag 
33ud) gefefen, he has read the book. §Ba§ §at ftd) jugettagen? 
what has happened ? @§ ^)at geregnet/ it has been raining. 



§53. 


SGS e v b c n/ to become. 


Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 




Present, 


Sing. 3d) roerbe/ 1 become 


;. aSV/zo/. 3d) wcrbe^ I may become. 


£)u wjirjl. 


25 u toerbejt. 


@r tt>irb. 


(Sr merbe. 


PZ«r. SDSir roerben. 


PZwr. SBtr roerben. 


3fyr toerbct. 


3tyr. roerbet. 


@ic werben. 


<Ste wcrben. 




Imperfect. 


&'■»#. 3d) wurbe or roavb, 


I be- #%. 3d) ttmtbe, I might be^ 


came. 


come. 


2)u wurbejt or matbjr. £)u wfirbeft. 


(Sr wurbe or warb. 


(Sr H?urbe. 


Plur. SBtr wurben. 


PZwr. SBir wfirben. 


3*)t: rcurbet. 


3f)t wfirbet. 


@te rcurben. 


<Sie n?urben. 




Perfect. 


3d) bin geroorben/ 


3d) fet geworben, 


I have become, &c. 


I may have become, &c. 




Pluperfect. 


3d) wax genwben, 


3d) ftarc geworben. 


I had become, &c. 


I might have become, &c. 




Future. 


3d) roerbe ttetben, 


3d) tt>erbe werben. 


I shall become. 


I shall become, &c. 



44 conjugation of verbs. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Past Future. 



3d) werbe geroorben fegn. 
I shall have become, &c. 



3d) werbe geworben fein. 
I shall have become, &c. 



Conditional, 

3d) wurbe werbcn/ I would become. 

Past Conditional. 

3d) ttmrbe geworben fein/ 1 would have become. 

Imperative. 

Sing. 2d pers. SBerbe, become. Plur. 2d pers. SBerbet, become. 

Infinitive. Participle. 

Pres. SBerbeit/ to become, Pres. SSSerbenb, becoming. 

Past, ©ctvorben fein/ have become. Past, ©ewovbeti/ become. 

SBSerben is used as an auxiliary for the conjugation of the 
future tenses and conditionals : id) roerbe lefen/ 1 shall read. @te 
wfirben gefyen/ they would go. 

The verb roerben serves likewise for the formation of the 
passive voice, as : id) werbc gefd)lagen/ I am (being) beaten. 



§ 54.— I. COMPLEX ORDER. 



Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Present. 




Imperfect 


Sing. 1 — e 

2-(e)|t 
3-(c)t 


| -(Off 

o 

a 
u 


— e 
— eft 

— e 




§ —eft 

o . — e 


Plur. 1 — en 
2— et 
3— en 


Change of 
1 1 1 

s 3 s 


— en 

— et 
— en 




^ — en 
o — et 

— en 


Imperative. 


Infinitive. 


Participles. 


Sing. 2d pers. - 
Plur. 2d pers. — 


-(e) 
-<e)t 


— en 


Pres. 
Past. 


— enb 

ge— glen 
>8 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 



45 



Indicative. 
Present. Imperfect. 

Sing. 1— e — (e)te 

2— eft — (e)tejt 

3—( e )t — (e)te 



II. SIMPLE ORDER. 

Subjunctive. 

Imperfect. 



Plur. 1 — en 

2-(e)t 
3— en 



— (e)tet 

— (z)Un 



Imperative. 
Sing. 2d pers. — (e) 
Plur. 2d pers. — (e)t 



Present. 
— e 
-eft 
— e 

— en 

— et 

— en 

Infinitive. 
— en 



— ete 
— eteft 
—ete 

— eten 
— etet 
—eten 

Participles. 
Pres. — enb 
Past. ge — (e)t 



§ 55.— I 

Indicative. 

Present- 

Sing. 3d) fpringe, I spring. Sing 

£u fpring(e)jt. 

(St fprtng(e)t. 
Plur. iBtr fpringen. 

3*)r fprtng(e)t. 

@te fpringen. 



COMPLEX ORDER. 

Subjunctive. 



Sing. 3d) (prong/ I sprang 

£5u fprang(e)ft. 

(Sr fprang. 
Plur. 2£ir fprangen. 

3§r fprang(e)t. 

@ic fprangen. 

3d) bin gefprungen, 
I have sprung, &c. 



3d) fpringe, I may spring. 
£)u fpringeft. 
@r fpringe. 
Plur. SBMr fpringen. 
3fyr fpringet. 
©ie fpringen. 
Imperfect. 

Sing. 3d) fprdnge, I might spring. 
£>u fprdngejt. 
(Sr fprdnge. 
PZwr. iBir fprdngen. 
3*)r fprdnget. 
@ie fprdngen. 
Perfect. 

. 3d) fei gefprungen, 

I may have sprung, &c. 



46 conjugation of verbs. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Pluperfect. 
3d) tt>ar gefprungen, 3d) roare gefprungen, 

I had sprung, &c. I might have sprung, &c. 

Future. 
3d) roerbe fpringen, 3d) werbe fpringen, 

I shall spring, &c. I shall spring, &c. 

Past Future. 
3d) werbe gefprungen fein, 3d) roerbe gefprungen fein/ 

I shall have sprung, &c. I shall have sprung, &c. 

Conditional. 
3d) wfirbe fpringen, I would spring, &c. 

Past Conditional. 
3$ rourbe gefprungen fein/ I would have sprung, &c. 

Imperative. 

Sing. 2d. pers. — (Sprtng(e), spring. 
Plur. 2d. pers. — Spring(e)t, spring. 

Infinitive. Participle. 

Pres. — (Sprtngen, to spring. Pres. — ©pringenb, springing. 

Past. — ©efprungen fetn,have sprung. Past. — ©efprungen, sprung. 

§ 56.— II. SIMPLE ORDER. 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 
Present. 

Sing. 3d) lobe, I praise. Sing. 3$ lobe, I may praise. 

©u lob(e)ft. £)u lobeft. 

(Sr lob(e)t. <Sr lobe. 

Plur. 9Btr loben. Plur. SOBir loben. 

3l)r lob(e)t. 3^r lobet. 

@tc loben. ©te loben. 



conjugation of verbs. 47 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

Imp erfect. 
Sing. 3d) lobte/ I praised. Sing. 3d) lobete, I might praise. 

Sutobtetjr. £)u lobeteft. 

(St fobte. @r tobete. 

Plur. SBMr lobten. P/wr. 2Bir lobeten. 

3$r lobtet. 3t)r tobetct. 

(Sie tobten. <Sie lobeten. 

Perfect. 
■ 3d) fjabe aclobt/ 3d) tyabe gelobet, 

I have praised, &c. I may have praised, &c. 

Pluperfect. 
3d) ^attc Qetobet, 3d) fcatte getoW. 

I had praised, &c. I might have praised, &c. 

Future. 
3d) werbe loben/ 3d) roerbe loben/ 

I shall praise, &c. I shall praise, &c. 

Past Future. 
3d) tterbe Qelobt fyaben, 3d) roerbe getobt fjaben, 

I sh^ll have praised, &e. I shall have praised, &c. 

Conditional. 
^ rourbe loberw I would praise, &e. 

Past Conditional. 
3d) ttmrbe getobt fyabert, I would have praised, &c. 

Imperative. 
Sing 2d <pers. — £ob(e)/ praise. Plur. 2d pers. — 2ob(e)t, praise. 

Infinitive. Participle. 

Pres. Cobert/ to praise. Pres. £obenb/ praising. 

Past, ©etobt fyaberi/ have praised. Past. @elob(e)t, praised. 

Note. — The derivative verbs in eln (el=n) and em (er=n) drop the 
vowel of inflection e before ft/ t, n , in the first person of the present 
indicative and in the imperative singular, they commonly drop the vowel 
of the derivative syllables el and ev t as : id) hanb*t=e/ rr>anbsr=e ; bu hanb= 
eUfr, wanb-ersjtj er hanb=el=t $ nrir t)anb?el=rt/ rcanb=ersri/ &c 



48 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

§ 57. PASSIVE VOICE. 



Indicative. 



Sing. 3d) roerbe gelobt, 
I am praised. 

£u wirft QeXobt. 

(Sr wtrb gelobt. 
P/wr. 2Btr werben gelobt. 

3fjr werbet gelobt. 

©te werben gelobt. 

3d) wurbe gelobt, 
I was praised, &c. 

3d) bin gelobt worben, 



Subjunctive. 
Present, 

Sing. 3d) werbe gelobt/ 

I may be praised. 

£>u werbejt gelobt. 

(Sr werbe gelobt. 
P/wr. SBtr werben gelobt. 

3t)r itJerbet gelobt. 

@ie werben gelobt. 

3d) wurbe gelobt, 

I would be praised, &c. 

Perfect. 

3d) fet gelobt worben, 
I have been praised, &c. I may have been praised, &c. 

Pluperfect. 
3d) war gelobt worben, 3*) wdre gelobt worben, 

I had been praised, &c. I might have been praised, &c. 

Future, 
3d) werbe gelobt werben, 3d) werbe gelobt werben, 

I shall be praised, &c. I shall be praised, &c. 

Past Future. 
3d) werbe gelobt worben fetn, 3d) werbe gelobt worben fcin, 

I shall have been praised, &c. I shall have been praised, &c. 

Conditional. 
3d) wurbe gelobt werben, I would be praised, &c. 

Past Conditional. 
3d) wurbe gelobt worben fein/ I would have been praised, &c. 
Infinitive. 
Pres. ©etobt werben/ to be praised. 
Past. ®elobt worben fetn, to have been praised. 



PRIMITIVE VERBS. 



49 



§ 58. CONJUGATION OF THE REFLECTIVE VERB. 



Sing. 



Present. 
3d) roafcfye mtd> 
I wash myself. 
£u wdfd)cft bid). 
@r wctfdjt ffd). 
PZwr. SfBtr. ttJQfd^en ung. 
3f)t* mafdjet eudj, 
@ie n?afd;en (id). 
Imperfect. 
3d) wufd) mid), 
I washed mvself, &c. 



Perfect. 
3$ fyafo mid) geroafdjert/ 
I have washed myself &c. 

Pluperfect. 
3cl) tjatte mid) gewafcften, 
I had washed myself, &c. 

Future, 
3d) werbe mid) wafdjett/ 
I shall wash myself, &c. 

Past Future. 
3d) metbe mid) gewafdjen foafcen, 
I shall have washed myself, &c. 

Note. — The reflective form of transitive verbs is much more frequently 
used in German than in English. 

§ 59. PRIMITIVE VERBS. 

The following lists contain all those primitive' or radical 
verbs of the present language which are still conjugated after 
the complex order. They are arranged under eight classes, 
according to their agreement in the change of vowel Qiblaut) 
of the imperfect and past participle. 

The present tense, present participle, and the imperative 
keep the radical vowel of the infinitive. 

The imperfect of the subjunctive preserves the radical vowel 
of the imperfect indicative, modifying it, however, if capable of 
modification, e. g.: id) banbe/ I might bind. 



§60. First Class: a/ U. 



Infinitive. 


Imperfect. 


Past Participle, 


binberi/ to bind 


banb 


gebunbcn 


btngen, to hire 


bang 


gebungen 


bringert/ to press 


brang 


gebtungen 


ftnben, to find 


fanb 


gefunben 


geltngen, to succeed 


getang 


gelungerc 



50 



PRIMITIVE VERBS. 



Infinitive. 
flingem to sound 
ringert/ to wrestle 
fdjinben^to flay 
fdjtingem to sling 
fd)tt>tnbcn/ to vanish 
fdjttringeti/ to swing 
ftngen/ to sing 
ftnfen, to sink 
fpringen/ to spring 
ftinlen/ to stink 
trinlen/ to drink 
ttrinben/ to wind 
jwtngen/ to force 

Note. — £)tngen and fdjtnben 



Imperfect. 
ftong 
rang 
fd;anb 
fditang 
fdjwanb 
fd)tt)ang 
fang 
fan! 
fprang 
Irani 
tran! 
wanb 
&mang 



Past Participle. 
gellungen ■ 
gerungen 
gcfd)itnben 
gefd)lungen 
gefcfyrunben 
gefdntmngen 
gefungen 
gefunfen 
gefprungen 
geflunfen 
getrunfen 
gewunben 
gejwungen. 



have in the imperfect also bung/ fdjunb. 



§61. Second Class: a, o. 

Infinitive. Imperfect. Past Participle. 

befehtem to command befabt befoftlen 

beginnen/ to begin begann begonr.en 

bergen, to hide barg geborgen 

berften/ to burst bavjr gcborjten 

brecften, to break brad) gebrod?en 

erfd)recfen/ to be frightened erfd)racf erfd)rocfen . 

empfefylen/ to recommend empfafyt empfofylen 

gebdren/ to bring forth gebar geboren 

getten, to be worth gait gegolten 

gertrinnen/ to win geroann geroonnen 

tjelfen/ to help fjalf getjotfen 

fommen/ to come lam gelommen 

neftmen/ to take natym genommen 

rinnen, to run rann geronncn 

fd)elten/ to scold fdjatt gefd)otten 

fdjir-tmmen/ to swim fd)iramm gefdjwommen 

ftnnen to think fann gefonnen 



PRIMITIVE VERBS. 



51 



Infinitive. 


Imperfect. 


Pas£ Participle. 


fpinnen, to spin 


fpdnn 


gefponnen 


fpred)en/ to speak 


fpvad) 


gefprodjen 


ftedjcti/ to sting 


ftad) 


gejtodjen 


fte^Xert/ to steal 


ftatyt 


geftohlen 


fterben/ to die 


ftdrb 


gcftorben 


treffen/ to hit 


ttraf 


getroffen 


yerberben, to spoil 


serbarb 


sevborben 


n?erben> to sue 


n>arb 


geworben 


tt)erben/ to become 


n>arb 


geroorben 


roerfetv to throw 


ftctrf 


geworfen. 



A^ofe. 1. — All those verbs that have in the infinitive the radical vowel 
e or & change it in the second and third persons of the singular present 
indicative into {/as: brichftr brid)t. The same is done in the second 
person singular of the imperative, dropping at the same time its termi- 
nation of inflection, as: fptid)j tt>erben/ which has Werbe/ must be 
excepted. 

Note 2.— 4?«lfeti/ fterben/ oerberbeti/ wetben, toetfen/ have in the im- 
perfect of the subjunctive the vowel \X, as : hulfe; and beginnett/ befeblen/ 
etnpfehlen/ berjlen, gelten/ beftnnen/ gevinnen, fdjelten, fpinnen/ have 6* 
as: begonnc/ &c. 

Note 3. — Instead of tt>atb/ which applies only to the singular, Wttrbe 
is now generally used. 

Note 4. — @rfd)recf en and loerberben have the complex inflection only 
when they are used intransitively; as transitives they are inflected after 
the simple order. 



§ 62. 


Third Class: 


Ot o. 


Infinitive. 


Imperfect. 


Past Participle. 


bellemmcn/ to oppress 


bellomm 


beftommen 


bett-egen/ to induce 


bewog 


beroogen 


biegen/ to bend 


bog 


gebogen 


bkUrit to offer 


bot 


geboten 


brefcfyen, to thrash 


btofd) 


Qebrofdjerx 


erftefert/ to choose 


er!or 


erloren 


erfcrjalten/ to resound 


erfcfyott 


erfdjotfen 


srmagen/ to consider 


enr-og 


ermogen 



52 



Z PRIMITIVE VERBS, 




Infinitive. 


Imperfect. 


Pas£ Participle 


fecfyten, to fight 


w 


gefod)ten 


fled()ten, to plait 


flod)t 


geflodjten 


fltegen, to fly 


flog 


geflogen 


ftfefyen/ to flee 


m 


QefXo^en 


ftieferi/ to flow 


w 


geflojfen 


frteren/ to freeze 


fror 


gefroren 


gcifjren, to ferment 


got 


gegoren 


gentefsen/ to enjoy 


genofj 


genoffen 


gtef en, to pour 


9<>P 


gegoffen 


gltmmett/ to glimmer 


gtomm 


gegtommen 


tyeben, to lift 


t>ob 


gefyoben 


f lauben, to cleave 


Hob 


gefloben 


flimmen, to climb 


ftomm 


gefiommen 


frtedjen/ to creep 


frod) 


gefroren 


erTofdjen/ ") . . ertofd) 
M (Kf*n, ) t0 eXtmgmsh mm 


cctofdjen 
Dertofdjen 


lugen, to tell lies 


log 


gelogen 


metlen/ to milk 


mot? 


gemotfen 


pflegen, to foster 


Pflog 


gepflogen 


queUen/ to spring forth 


quott 


gequotfen 


radjetv to revenge 


rod) 


getodjert 


rtedjen/ to smell 


rod) 


gerodjcn 


faufen/ to drink excessi 


vely [off 


gefoffcn 


faugen, to suck 


fog 


gcfogcn 


fdjeren, to shear 


fdjor 


gcfdjoren 


fd^tebert/ to shove 


fd>ob 


gefcfyoben 


fd)tefen/ to shoot 


M* 


gefdjoffen 


fdjttefcnr to close 


MtoP 


gefd)loffcn 


fdfjmelsen, to melt 


fdjmolj 


gefcfymolsen 


fd)naubem to snuff 


fd)nob 


gefcfynoben 


fdforauben, to screw 


fd)tob 


gefdjroben 


frfjitmreti/ to fester 


fdjroor 


gefd)it)oren 


fd)tt>eUeiv to swell 


fd)tt)oll 


ge [doolie n 


fd)tt>5ren, to swear 


fdwot 


gefd)tt)oren 


ft'eben, to boil 


fott 


gefotten 



PRIMITIVE VERBS. 



53 



Infinitive. 


Imperfect. 


Past Participle. 


fpriefien/ to sprout 


[prop 


gefproffen 


ftieben/ to fly about like dust jtob 


gefteben 


triefen, to drop 


troff 


getroffen 


trugeri/ to deceive 


trcg 


getrogen 


oerbriefjett/ to vex 


uerbrof* 


cerbrojfen 


oeriieren, to lose 


wrlct 


wttoren 


»etfd)aUen/ to die away 


»er(d)oU 


uer[d)oXleu 


toeben/ to weave 


tt>ob 


gerooben 


nnegen, to weigh 


roog 


genjogen 


Siehen, to draw, to go 


m 


ge§ogen. 



.Note l. — All those verbs, except beflemmert/ bewegen, heben and 
pflegeri/ which have in the infinitive the radical vowel e/ change the same 
into i in the second and third persons singular of u the present indicative, 
and in the second person singular of the imperative, in the latter of which 
the termination e is dropped. 

Note 2. — Those verbs of this class which have a long i (ie) had for- 
merly the diphthong eu in the second and third persons singular of the 
present tense, as also in the singular of the imperative, e. g.: beugjl* 
beugtj beutft, beut; fteugffc/ fXeugt; freuctyji/ freudjt } beucj/ beut, geufj, 
&c. These forms are now only found in poetry. 

Note 3. — SSeflemmert and radjen receive now the simple inflection in 
the imperfect. Snellen i s use d in both orders of inflection. SKkben is 
conjugated in the complex order only by poets. ©d)tt)6ren has in the 
imperfect also fd)l»ur. 

Note 4. — (Svl6fd)en and t)erlofd)en have the complex inflection only as 
intransitives. fiSfdjen, which is transitive, has the simple inflection. 
S3ett)egeU/in the signification of to move (physically), and pflegen, in that 
of to be accustomed, are conjugated after the simple order. 



§ 63. 


Fourth Class; 


: a, c 


Infinitive. 


Imperfect. 


Past Participle. 


bitten/ to beg 




bat 


gebeten 


effen, to eat 




ap 


gegeffen 


freffert/ to devour 




m 


gefreffen 


geben, to give 




gab 


gegeben 


genefert, to recover 


from 


genas 


genefcn 


illness 









f3 



54 



. 


PRIMITIVE VERBS 




Infinitive. 


Imperfect. 


Pas£ Participle 


gefdjefjert/ to happen 


8«T<W. 


gefdjefoen 


leferi/ to read 


Ia6 


getefen 


u'egen, to lie 


lag 


gelegen 


meffen, to measure 


map 


gemeffen 


febem to see 


fat) 


gefefcen 


ft^ert/ to sit 


faf 


gefeffen 


trcteit/ to tread 


trat 


getreten 


oergeffen/ to forget 


»ergap 


wrgeffen. 



JVofe. — Those which have c in the infinitive, except genefeil/ change 
their radical vowel into i in the second and third persons singular of the 
present indicative and in the imperative. 



§ 64. Fifth Class: i, i. 



Infinitive. 

befleifen (ft'dj), to i 

oneself 
fcetp en/ to bite 
evMetchen, to turn pal 
gteid)en> to resemble 
gteiten/ to glide 
gretfen, to gripe 
feifen, to scold 
fneifcn/ to pinch 
Xeiben/ to suffer 
pfctfen, to pipe 
mpert/ to tear 
ireitcn/ to ride 
fcfytetcfyert/ to sneak 
fd)letfen> to sharpen 
fd)tetpen/ to slit 
fcfynetpen to smite 
fd)iieiberi/ to cut 
fdjmtert, to stride 



Imperfect. 
,pply fcefltp 

W 
e erbttcr) 

gtitt 

Qnff 

*iff 

Sniff 

tftt 

Pfiff 

rip 

titf 

f«W 
WUff 

fW 

fcfymip 
fcfcmtt 
fd)ritt 



Past Participle. 
bcfXtffen 

gebtffen 

erMcfyen 

geglidjen 

geglitten 

gegriffen 

geltffen 

gefniffen 

gelitten 

gepfiffert 

geriffcn 

gmtten 

gefdjltcfjen 

gefdjttffen 

gefd)ttffen 

gefcfymiffen 

gefdjnitten 

gefdjritten 



PRIMITIVE VERBS 




Infinitive. 


Imperfect. 


Pastf Participle, 


ftmfa/ to stroke 


ftrtdf) 


geftrtdjen 


jfretten, to contend 


ffeitt 


gejtritten 


iveityn, to yield 


nrid) 


geir-idjen. 


§ 65. Sixth Class : 


te, te. 


Infinitive. 


Imperfect. 


P<2s£ Participle , 


fclet&ert/ to remain 


Mteb 


gebtteben 


gebetfyem to prosper 


gebtef) 


gebtefyen 


tet^en/ to lend 


Ke$ 


geltefyen 


meibem to avoid 


mieb 


getmeben 


preiferi/ to praise 


prie§ 


gepriefen 


vtiben, to rub 


rtefc 


geriefcen 


fdjetberi/ to separate 


fd)ieb 


gefrf)teben 


fdjetnen> to shine 


fdjten 


gefcfyienen 


fcfyretfcen/ to write 


fcfyrteb 


gefd)rieben 


fd;reien/ to scream 


fdfjrfc 


gefd)rieen 


fcfywetgen, to be silent 


fcfywieg 


gefcfyttriegen 


fpetett/ to spit 


(pie 


gefpteen 


ftetgett/ to mount 


peg 


gejttegen 


imUn, to drive 


ttteb 


getriefcert 


it-etfen, to show 


tt>te§ 


gennefen 


aetfjen, to accuse 


Sief) 


gegtefjen. 



55 



§ 66. Seventh Class : te, Past Part, without change of 
vowel. 



Infinitive. 


Imperfect. 


Past Participle, 


btafen/ to blow 


WeS 


geHafen 


fcratem to roast 


brtet 


gekaten 


fallen, to fall 


pel 


gefatfen 


fcmgen, to catch 


fteng 


gefangen 


gefyen/ to go 


gieng 


gegotigen 


fatten/ to hold 


tytett 


gefyatten 


fyatigetv to hang 


t)ieng 


gefyangen 



56 



PRIMITIVE VERBS. 



Infinitive. Imperfect. Past Participle* 

fjauen, to hew hieb gefcauen 

fceifen, to bid hiefi geijetfen 

taffen, to let liejj getafien 

laufert/ to run lief getaufen 

ratten/ to advise rtett) geratfoen 

rufen, to call rtef gerufen 

fdjtafen/ to sleep ftfjlief gefd^tafen 

ftoflen/ to push fttej? gefropen 

Note 1. — All verbs of this class, except fcaueit/ modify the radical 
vowels a and au in the 2d and 3d person singular present tense indicative. 

Note 2. — The verbs fatten to fold, falgen to salt, fpctlten to split, 
fdjroten to shred,, and maten to grind flour, belong also to this class, but 
they form only their past participles after the complex order. 



§ 67. Eighth Class : Ut Past Part, without change of 
vowel. 

Infinitive. Imperfect. Past Participle, 

ba&en, to bake buc! gebacfen 

faftrcn, to proceed fufcr gefahren 

grabem to dig grub gegrabett 

labeit/ to load tub gelaben 

fcfcaffen/ to create fcfyuf gefdjaffen 

fcfttagen, to beat fd)tug gefchtagen 

fteben/ to stand ftunb geftanben 

tragem to carry trug getragen 

toadjfen/ to wax rcucbs gewadjfen 

»afd)cn/ to wash rcufd) gewafcfcen. 

JVofe 1. — <&U$W (old High ; German stantan) has jtunb and ftcmb in 
the imperfect, and geftanben in the past participle. 

Note 2. — The verb fragert to ask, belongs also to this class, but the 
imperfect frug only follows sometimes the complex inflection. 

Note 3. — (Sdjdffen/ when it signifies to work, has the simple order of 
inflection. 

§ 68. IRREGULAR VERBS. 

The following only are irregular verbs : — 

1. SSrennen to burn, lennen to know, nennen to name, rcnnen 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 57 

to run, fenben to send, and roenben to turn ; all of which change 
in the perfect and past participle the radical vowel e into a> and 
take at the same time the terminations peculiar to the simple 
order, as : imperfect brann^tc/ past participle gebrann4/ &c. The 
subjunctive of the imperfect preserves in all these verbs the 
radical vowel e, as : 3d) fcrennte/ 1 might burn. 

Note. — SGknbeil to turn, is conjugated also entirely after the simple 
order. 

2. SBrtngen to bring, and benfen to think. These have in 
the imperfect fcrad)4e and: bafy-tet and in the past participle 
gebrad)=t and gebad)=r. 

3. The verb tfyun to do, which has in the imperfect tyat 
(having dropped the e in the termination te), and in the past 
participle getfyan (having preserved the complex inflection en/ 
but contracted it with the root). In the imperfect of the sub- 
junctive it has tyate. 

4. The verbs burfen to be permitted, fonnen to be able, mogen 
may, mujfen to be obliged, [often shall, rciffen to know, rcollen to 
be willing. The present tense indicative of these verbs has in 
the singular the form of a complex imperfect; the plural, 
however, and the subjunctive of the present tense, as well as 
the present participle, follow the simple order of inflection. 
The imperfect (in— te), and the past participle (in— t), are also 
inflected after the simple order, as : — 







Present Indicative. 






id) barf 


farm 


mag mujj foil 


roeijl 


will 


bu barfffc 


fannft 


magjt muft foUft 


wetft 


willft 


er barf 


fann 


mag mu£ foil 


wetfj 


will 


unr burfen 


fonnen 


mogen mujfen fotten 


ttJtffen 


pollen, &c, 



Present Subjunctive. 
id) burfe fonne moge muffe folle wtffe Nolle, &c. 

Imperfect Indicative. 
id) burfte fonnte mod)te mu£te foltte rcupte wollte, &c 



58 



AUXILIARY VERBS OF MOOD. 



Imperfect Subjunctive. 
td) burfte fonrtte mocf)te muffo fotlte ttJufte wollk, &c. 

Present Participle. 
burfenb formenb mogenb muffenb fotlenb rciffenb wollenb. 

Past Participle. 
geburft gefonnt gemod)t gemuft gefotft geroufjt gerooti't. 

iVofe. — The past compound tenses of these verbs are formed with fyabert/ 
as : 3d) fyabe geburft/ id) §atU gefonnt, &c. 

§ 69, AUXILIARY VERBS OF MOOD. 

To the auxiliary verbs of mood, burfert/ f onnen, mogen, mufjert/ 
fallen/ rootten and laffen^ and also to some other verbs, especially 
tjetfert/ ftetfert/ tjoreri/ fefteri/ attaches the strange peculiarity of 
adopting" the form of the infinitive instead of the past partici- 
ple when they are connected with another infinitive : e. g. 3tf) 
fyabe eg rucbt tftun burfert (instead of geburft), I have not been 
permitted to do it. @u fyat warren mutfen (instead of gemu£t)> 
he has been obliged to wait. 3$ wtitbe tbn baben rufen laffen 
(instead of getaffen), I would have let him be called. 3$ i)httt 
tfon ntdfjt gefien laffen folten (instead of gefotlt), I ought not to have 
let him go. 3d) babe ibn nid)t gehen fefoen (instead of gefeben), I 
have not seen him going. 

Note. — The participle, however, must be used, when these verbs are 
not in connexion with the infinitive of another verb, as : et WOllte ntcbt/ 
aber er rjCtt gemuft, he would not, but he has been obliged. 

§ 70. The signification of the verbs of mood has mifch 
changed in the course of time ; the corresponding verbs of the 
two languages, therefore, although originally the same, fre- 
quently deviate much from each other in their present meaning. 

1. Surfeit/ originally to dare, indicates now generally the 
permission to do a thing, as : cv barf gebert/ he is permitted to 
go. @te burfte nidrjt bUiUn, she was not permitted to stay. It 
designates also (in the imperfect subjunctive only) a probability : 
e. g. @r burfte eg fd)on gemerft haberi/ perhaps he has observed it 
already. 



AUXILIARY VERBS OF MOOD. 59 

2. $))l6gen indicates either a liberty granted by the will of the 
speaker, as : bu magft e3 feefyatteti/ thou mayest keep it ; or it 
expresses an inclination or desire of the speaker : e. g. 3d) 
mod)te ausgefyen/ 1 should like to go out. 3d) mag md)t SBaffer/ I 
do not like water. Sa id; ntd)t tljun barf/ was tdj mod)te 5 f Snncn 
fte mid) bod) benfen taffen/ maS id) mitt/ as I am not permitted to 
do what I should like, they still might let me think what I 
will. — G'uthe. SOftcgen signifies, moreover, a concession on the 
part of the speaker : er mag red)t t)akti/ he may be right. 

3. Gormen designates physical possibility : e. g. er !ann tanjeu/ 
er barf tangen ; aber er mag nidjt tanjen/ he can dance, he is 
allowed to dance : but he does not like to dance. It indicates 
also logical possibility, just in the same manner as the adverb 
mel(eid)t perhaps, as : er fawn Iran! fetrt/ he is perhaps ill. (Sr 
lann eg uergeffen fyaben, he may have forgotten it. 

4. SUtuffen signifies physical necessity, as : bu muj5t get)em thou 
must go. It designates moral necessity caused by a general law : 
e. g. ber attere SSruber mup bem iungern wetdjen/ the elder brother 
must yield to the younger. — Schiller. It expresses moreover 
the certainty of a judgment, as : er mup tobt fetrt/ he is certainly 
dead. 

5. (Sotten indicates a moral necessity, but only in so far as 
it is caused by the will of another : e. g. £>tefe gurd)t foil enbtgen 5 
u)r £aupt foil fatten : 3d) mitt grteben tyaben/ this fear shall end ; 
her head shall fall: I will have peace. — Schiller. <Ste fotten 
mid) jefct nid)t/ nid)t je|t oertaffen, they shall not leave me now... 
not now. 3d) fott teben/ mte i<i) nidjt leben mag/ I am to live as I 
love not to live. — Gbthe. ©otten corresponds often in a pecu- 
liar manner with the English " / am said," (Latin dicor), as : 
id) fott eS gett)an tjafcen, I am said to have done it. £)er spring fott 
angelommen fetit/ the prince is said to have arrived. It has. 
sometimes the signification of to mean, as : tva§ fott ber #ut ? 
what does the hat mean ? £)u ©cfywert an metner £in?en ! maS foil 
betn fyettreS 25ltnf en ? thou sword on my left ! what means thy 
cheerful shining ? — K'drner. 

6. SBotten designates the determination, wish, or intention of 



60 THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

the speaker, as : »tr roollen fte ftngen madden/ we will make them 
sing. 3d) will an t()n fd)reiben, I will write to him. @ie roollen 
retten/ they wish to ride. It corresponds sometimes to the 
English verb to pretend, as : er trill bid) fennen/ he pretends to 
know thee, ©te will gufunftigc Singe wtffen/ she pretends to 
know future things. 

Note. — The English language, using the verb I will as an auxiliary 
verb of tense, expresses the signification of the German verb Wollen by 
other verbs, as: I am going, to intend, to mean, to wish, &c. 

7. Saffen expresses either a concession or command of the 
subject: e. g. £aft bu ben £Utefrenberg bercadjen lafien ? did you 
cause Questenberg to be watched ? gajj mid) geften, let me go. 

Note. — The German language, in a peculiar manner, uses this verb 
together with the reflective pronoun, as. a passive ; e. g. @r Idfit ftd) 
bewegen (er ttrirb bewogen)/ he lets himself be induced. @S lajjt ftd) 
ntd)t tijlM/ it cannot be done. 

§ 71. THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

The passive form or voice denotes a transitive action directed 
against, and suffered by, the subject, which is acted upon by an 
agent other than itself: e. g. (Sr wirb Don if)tn gestagen/ he is 
(being) beaten by him (oon itjm being here this agent besides 
the subject). SDte angrenjenben Sdnber werben can ubermittl)igen unb 
fubnen bittern serljeetl/ the adjoining countries are desolated by 
insolent and bold knights.— Golhe. SEarb er md)t con etnem 
SSeibe geboren? was he not born of a woman? — Schiller. #u$ 
ben Sffiunfta unb £offnungen wirb ber 2CRen(d) erfannt, by his wishes 
and hopes man is known. — Lavater. 

Note. — The passive voice is closely related to the reflective form of the 
verb ; for by the latter is also expressed a suffering state of the subject, 
but it differs from the passive by the peculiarity of the action being 
limited entirely to the subject itself, and without the operation of an 
additional agent: e.g. bag ©d)iff bewegt ft'd)/ the vessel moves. Qt 
fd)dmt ltd)/ he is ashamed. 25ie ©onne Derfmjtert fid), the sun darkens. 

The passive voice of transitive verbs, as already known, is 
formed with werben/ and not with fetn to be, as in English. 



THE REFLECTIVE VERB. 61 

This circumstance gives to the German language an advantage 
over the English and Roman languages, by enabling it to dis- 
tinguish, in a most decided manner, a real suffering of the 
subject from a state which is conceived as being a lasting- 
quality inherent in the subject, and indicated by the participle 
used as an adjective: in this latter case the participle must be 
connected with the subject by means of fetn and not roetben : 
e. g. bin id) benn abermalS betrogen ? am I then again deceived ? — 
G'othe. Q$ iftbalb gefpvocften/ aber fdjwer getban/ it is soon spoken, 
but done with difficulty. — Schiller. 2Ba6 nicfyt uerboten tjt/ tjt 
erlaubt/ what is not forbidden is permitted. — Schiller. 

Note. — Intransitive verbs may also be used sometimes in the passive 
form ; but having no. object, they cannot be conjugated according to the 
persons, and the subject of the action remaining indefinite, they pass 
over to the impersonal verbs, as : e§ tt>UVbe triel getanjt/ there was much 
dancing. 

§ 72. ON REFLECTIVE VERBS. 

Transitive verbs, by assuming the reflective form, receive 
an intransitive signification. It has been already observed 
that the reflective form is far more frequently used in German 
than in English ; to this we may add, that in no language but 
the German is the intransitive signification so decidedly distin- 
guished by the reflective form from the transitive, as well as 
from the passive signification of the verb : e. g. SDet S3aum 
betregt fid)/ the tree moves. 3d) bcroege ben 33aimi/ I move the 
tree. 2)er. SSaum wivb bem$t, the tree is (being) moved, 2)aS 
©erucht oerbrcitet fid)/ the report is spreading. (St cerbmtet baZ 
@erud)t/ he spreads the report. £)a£ ©erucht nnrb oerbrettet/ the 
report is (being) spread. £a§ ®erud)t tjt tterbreitet, the report 
is spread. £)et Snthum nneberbolt fid) immerfort in ber. Ztyat} 
be&cegen mufi man baZ SBafyre unermuMid) in SBorten nrieberboten/ 
error is repeated continually in our actions ; therefore, that 
which is true must be repeated incessantly in words. — G'othe. 

The reflective form is always used in German whenever the 
notion of a verb, transitive in itself, is to be represented as 

G 



62 COMPOUND VERBS. 

merely intransitive. In all these cases the English language 
generally employs either the active or passive form of the verb 
instead : e. g. 3)er SBinb breht ftd)/ the wind turns. £>er ©d)luf= 
fel \)at ftd) gefunben, the key is found. SDte @rbe bercegt fid), the 
earth moves. 2CUe ^>fite fd)muc£en ftd) mit 2ftat)eri, all hats are 
adorned with may. — Schiller. 2)ie etne £&Ifte ber jkit bringen fte 
§U; ftd) ju pu^ert/ unb tie anbve $atfte/ ftd) gepu§t fe^en ju laffen, 
one-half of their time they spend in dressing, and the other 
half in exhibiting themselves dressed. — Gothe. 

Note. — Several intransitive verbs may be used in the reflective form by 
uniting them with an adjective, as : cr f d)Idft ftd) franf/ he sleeps himself 
ill. 3d) get)e mid) mubC/ I tire myself with walking. 

The following verbs are never used otherwise than in the 
reflective form : — 

(Sid) fd)&mem to be ashamed. ©id) befleijHgeri/ to apply oneself, 

©id) wunbertv to be astonished. Bid) tt>tberfe§eri/ to oppose. 

Bid) freuert/ to rejoice. Bid) erbarmeri/ to have mercy. 

©id) cntfd)ltefien, to resolve. ©id) entbatten, to abstain. 

(Bid) febneti/ to long. ©id) erfyolen/ to recover oneself. 

©id) gvamert/ to grieve. (Bid) unterfteberi/ to venture. 

Bid) beftnneri/ to recollect. Bid) ert.unbigen, to inform oneself. 

§ 73. ON COMPOUND VERBS. 

Compound verbs are partly separable, and partly insepa- 
rable. The separation takes place only in the present and 
imperfect tenses, and in the imperative : e. g. (§r rcift ab/ he 
departs, ©teb auf, stand up. The particle or noun thus sepa- 
rated is put at the end of the sentence, as : er lam btefen ?0?orgen 
urn jroet Ubr. jururi, he came back this morning at two o'clock. 

No separation, however, takes place in subordinate sentences, 
as : rocnn er btefen Sftorgen abretft, .... if he set out this morning. 
£)a er aber ju fpat anfam, .... but as he arrived too late. 

1. Verbs compounded with substantives or adjectives are 
generally inseparable : e. g. 3d) roetSfage, I prophesy. Those 
verbs, however, compounded with adjectives and adverbs of 



USE OF HABEN AND SEIN. 



63 



quality which do not unite together into one single notion are 
separable, as: id) ad)te it>n hod), I esteem him (highly). <gc 
rtift (id) tog, he tears himself loose. (5r tfyut grofj, he boasts. 

2. Verbs compounded with the following particles are always 
separable : ah (off), auf, an/ aug, bet, bar, etn (in), fort/ ber, bin, 
berab, fytnab (and all particles compounded with bin and ber), 
mit, nad), niebcr/ ob, vox, roeg, gu, gurucf. 

In all verbs compounded with the above particles the prin- 
cipal accent lies upon the particle, as: au'fjtehen, ab'gefyen, ei'n= 
fdtfafen, &c. 

All verbs compounded with the unaccented particle irnber are 
inseparable : eg ttriberfu'fyr mtr, it happened to me. 

Note. — All verbs fQrmed with the unaccented prefixes hi, QC, emp, ent/ 
er, oer, ger are naturally inseparable : er geftanb eg mix, he confessed it 
to me. <Der JQtXV beftebtt eg/ the lord commands it. Some verbs com- 
pounded with the prefix mtf} are separable only in the past participle, and 
in the infinitive with gu before it, as: mi'fjgetont sounded badly: mifjgu? 
tonen to sound badly. In the present and imperfect tenses mtp is never 
separated: er mijtyanbelt ifyn, he ill-treats him. 

3. Verbs compounded with the particles burdj, btnter, uber, 
urn, unter/ ooll and nieber/ are separable only when the principal 
accent falls upon the particle ; but they are inseparable, when 
the accent lies upon the verb, as : er retfi beute bu'rd), he passes 
through to-day. ©r burcfymjt bag 2anb, he travels through the 
country. @r fe^te uber, he crossed (a river). (£r uberfe'^te, 
he translated, (Sr ging gum getnbc uber, he passed over to the 
enemy, ©fe ttbergt'ngen ben $>unct, they passed over that point. 

§. 74. Use of £aben and ©ein. 

Use of the auxiliary verbs baben and fetn in the formation 
of the past compound tenses : 

1. All transitive, reflective, and impersonal verbs are conju- 
gated with t)aben : td) x^ahz bie geber gefunben. @g bat fid) gugetra- 
gen. @g hat gebonnert. 

2. Intransitive verbs are generally conjugated with haben : 
fie haben getteint, they have been crying ; but especially those 
intransitive verbs which govern the dative or genitive : er hat 



64 



PARTICLES. 



nut gefyolfen, he has helped me, <gr fyat metner gefpotfet, he has 
mocked me. Exceptions to these are the verbs begegnen to 
meet, gettngen (impersonal) to succeed, mtfitfngeit to fail, folgen to 
follow, roetdjen to yield, which require feir»/ as : e§ tjt mix gelungen/ 
I have succeeded. 

The following intransitive verbs are conjugated with fetn : — 

a. Those which express a transition into another state, as : 

berften gerctrben fdjettern fievben 

gebetfyen gefd)ehen fdjmeljen trecfnen 

frteren l;eilen fdjroenen roacftfcn 

geltngen reifen fdjnrinben werben. 

genefen reifen fpriefen 

To these belong also those verbs formed with the prefixes 
et/ oetv ent/ as well as the verbs compounded with separable 
particles, denoting a change of state or condition, as : erlvanleri/ 
ei1&fd;en, erfdjlaffen/ erfd)iecren/ erftarren/ erfttcfen/ uerarmen/ uerberbem 
ocrborrert/ miofdjert, ueroben/ ttertr-efen/ «Ufd>lafen/ entftetjen/ entbren* 
nert/ etnfd)tafen/ aufroadjen/ abfchtagen/ &c. 

b. Those which indicate a motion to or from a place, as : 
bringert, etten/ fatten, fallen, fliegen, fltejjen/ flicben/ gehen, gctangen/ 
gteitcti/ tjinfer?/ iagerw flimmen/ lommeii/ !uied)cn, lanbeti/ laufen, 
quellen, reifen/ vcitert/ rennen/ rinnen/ rucfen/ fdjetben/ fd;tefjen/ fd)let; 
djen/ fdjlupfen/ fcbreiten/ fdjrotmmen, fegetn, ftnfen/ fpringen/ fteigen, 
ftofert/ |tretd)en/ tretben/ treten/ umberiuren/ rc-aten/ rueidjen/ gteben. 

If, however, the verbs eiten/ fliefen/ hinfen/ jagen/ ftettern/ 
frtedjen/ lanben/ laufen/ quellen/ reifen/ rettem rinnen/ fegeln/ fcbiffen/ 
fd)roimmen/ fpringen/ frozen/ treiben/ nxtnbern/ do not express a 
motion to or from a place, they require the auxiliary verb baben. 

Note. — Several verbs require in one signification the verb baben and 
in another fetil/ e. g. £a§ SBaffer tjt gefroren ; the water is frozen. 3d) 
babe gefroren/ 1 have been cold. 3d) bin in einem SBSagen fortgefahren/ 
I have proceeded in a carriage. 3d) babe fottgefabren JU lefen/ 1 have 
continued reading. 

§ 75. PARTICLES. 

All those " little words " which do not admit of inflection, 
such as adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections, 



ADVERBS. 65 

come under this denomination. It is often difficult to distin- 
guish clearly between them, since the same Particle is 
frequently used as an adverb, preposition, or conjunction. 
They had originally but one meaning ; but from their constant 
use in expressing the various relations which words and sen- 
tences bear to each other, they have assumed many significa- 
tions ; the greatest care is therefore necessary in their proper 
choice and application. 

Note. —The relations that words and sentences bear to each other in 
speech, are those of space, time, cause, manner, or other circumstances. 

§ 76. ADVERBS. 

The adverb is so called because it is generally joined to a 
verb. It denotes the manner and secondary circumstances of 
adjectives, verbs, and even of adverbs themselves, expressing 
their how ? where ? when ? &c. They are indeclinable, 
some of them merely admitting a sort of inflection, viz. a 
comparative and superlative degree, which are, however, simi- 
lar to those of the corresponding adjectives. Almost all 
adjectives and participles, without changing their form, may be 
used adverbially. 

Note. — Many adverbs are originally cases of nouns, especially genitives, 
of which they have retained the characteristic letter 3: e. g. SJiorgenS 
in the morning, ICbenbS in the evening. ^ 

Adverbs are Distinguished under the Following 
Heads : — 

a. Adverbs of Quality and Manner : 

SBie/ how <Sd)6ti/ beautifully, gutcjg/ directly 

<2o, so well G5e[d)mmb/ quickly 

2£nber§/ otherwise j3eittg/ timely SBSohl/ well 

©cfyneU/ quickly 2UigenMicfrtd()/ instan- $l6§ltd), suddenly 

SSergebeng/ in vain taneously Sciff/ gently 

SheUS/ partly Umfonft/ in vain, ©ludllt&erroetfe/ hap- 
GsitenbS/ hastily gratis pily. 

g3 



66 



ADVERBS. 



b. Adverbs of Intensity. 

@e§r/ very ©anjttd)/ entirely 

2Ceuf?erjt/ extremely SB&Utg, fully 
UeberauS/ exceedingly ®ar/ very 
SSefonberg/ particu- gu/ too 

larly (Sogar, even 

£6djff, most ©enug/ enough 

Ungemetn/ uncom- SBenta,/ little 

monly <5itt>a§/ something 

S3or$ugttd), particu- ^iemttd), tolerably 

larly SWe^r/ more 

2Cuf erorbentlid^/ extra- SOttnber/ less 

ordinarily SDlinbejr, least 

Unenbltd^/ infinitely (Setbjt/ even 
©cm^ quite 



almost 



3e...te# the.. .the 
Se...befto/ the... the 
£od)ftenS, at the most 
SBSenigftenS/ at least 
£aum, scarcely 
SSetnatje/ 

8*fc 

©letcfyfant/ as it were 

9lur/ only 

SBetti far 

23et weitent/ by far 

SStel/ much 

SttetftenS/ mostly. 



Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation. 



3a/ yes 
£>od), yet 
SBatyrtfd), 
gurmafyr 
£&/ whether 
©elt, A 

5Kid)t roafyr, j so 
(Sdjrcerlid)/ hardly 

> certainly 



P. 



aBirlttd^/ really 
2Bcu)rf)aftig, truly 
greilidb, l certain- 
2£Uerbtngg/ J ly 
SBat)rfrf)etnlid)/ pro- 
bably 
©ewiflermaffen/ in 
some manner 
Srctun, truly 



SRetn/ no 

Sfctd&t/ not 

9Kit ntcljtcrir > by no 

& N eineSroegcS/> means 

Cctwa/ perhaps 

SSermutfytid)/ probably 

©d)ted)terbingg/ by all 

means 
S3teUetd)t, perhaps. 



iid>, / firstl y 



©rftli^, J """J ©oppelt, doubly 
3tt>etten£, secondly (Stnmctt, once 
SrtttenS, thirdly, &c. 3tt>etmat, twice 
Sum erften, firstly ^tnfadj, simply 



d. Adverbs of Number. 
3ule|r, at last Sretfad), threefold 



?OTond)ma(/ "I several 
(Sinigemat/ J times 
95telfod)/ manifoldly. 



ADVERBS. 



67 



maUt ) 



ever 



3c 
Semat 

3*«aeft,l a i W a ys 

9*ie, -^ 

9ttmmer/ 

knever 

9liemat§/ J 

» ft ' I then 
sDann/J 

2£ann/ when 

SRuri/ now 

3e|t/ at present 

©onft/ formerly 

(Stnjt/ once 

jDcvcinfl/ at some fu- 
ture time 

2Cfcenb$/ in the even- 
ing 

SXorgenS/ in the 
morning 

SDttttagS, at noon 

SKadfotS/ by night 

©ettbem/ since 

©either/ hitherto 

Smmcrfcat, 1 

Smmerfort, J 



e. Adverbs of Time. 
9?ad) unb nad)/ gra- 
dually 
StemaM, J formerl 
(Sfyebem/ > 

^^'i formerly 

$ormales,$ 

SSortyer/ before 
9tacf)§ct/ afterwards 
©ogtetd), directly 
9R:ad)ften§/ soon 
(g&en, just now 

I already 

S^od)/ yet 
SSaftv soon 

* inf0tt 'l henceforth 

.ftimfttg, in future 

Cefcttyin/ lately 

SSon jetjcr/ from all 

times 
SSon fyeute an, from 

this day 

t in the 

Stnftwctten/ \ 

1 J mean- 

Untcrteffen, ( wMe 



2Cllmd^li8/ gradually 
SKeutid)/ ■> 
^urjltd), I lately 
3ungft, J 
(Sfjcfteng/ very soon 
tfnfangS/ in the be- 
ginning 
©nbltd}/ at last 
v^eute/ to-day 
©ejlern/ yesterday 

5 the day 
before 
(Sfyegejta/ J yester- 

tday 
SKocgen/ to-morrow 
Uebermorgen /? after 

to-morrow 
tfjcuer/ in this year 
§rufy> early 
@p&t/ late 
S3t£ ie^t/ until now 
SMSfyer/ hitherto 
Snjwifdlfn/ in the 

mean-while 
2)ann unb wann/ now 

and then. 



#tet, here 

® a ' I there »>, where 

SDott, ) £)6en, above 

Ueberall/ everywhere Unten/ below 
2CUentfyalben/ every- Snnen/ within 
where tfufjen, without 



/. Adverbs of Space. 

Svgenbwo/ anywhere SSorri/ before 
#inten> behind 
©rofcen/ there above 



©vunten; there below 
SDrinnen* 

Savin/ 



i 



therein 



68 



COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 



Sraujjett/ thereout 
4i>uben/ on this side 
£)rubert/ on that side 
£>arctuf/ thereupon 
$terauj> hereupon 
2>aruber/ there above 
©arunter/ there under 
2Tuf?err;atb, outside 
3nncrt)al6/ inside 
SDbertjalb, above 
Unterfyalb, below 
2}ie§fett6, on this side 
3enfeit6, on that side 
9fed)t§/ to the right 
ZinUi to the left 
UnterroegS/ on the 
road 



(gtromab/ down the 

stream 
(Siromauf, up the 

stream 
£>at)etm/ at home 

oW far 
goct/ forth, away 
2SeQ/ away 

.*,. a > around 
Sfonggum, J 

£er/ hither 

#tn, thither 

£>af)eiv from there 

jDatytn/ that way 

SBofyer, whence 



9ft&cfrt>&rt§/ backwards 
SBo&fa/ whither 
Jgembt down here 
#eraufv up here 
herein, in here 
£ei*unter/ down here 
joinabf down there 
v£rinau§/ out there 
^>tnein/ in there 
$tnunter/ down there 
SSccgauf/ up hill 

~. "' , > down-hill 
23ergunter J 

gelbetn/ into the fields 

SSovroa.rtS, forward 

©cttwdrtS/ sideways. 



§ 77. Comparison of Adverbs. 

The Comparative is formed in etv as : fdjon finely, fd)6n=ev 
more finely. 

The Superlative is formed : — 

1. In ft/ as : met s ji mostly, iung=ft lately. 

2. In enS/ as : befNnS in the best manner, metfMnS mostly. 

3. With the" preposition am> as : am befren in the best man- 
ner. 

4. With the preposition jtt/ as : juerjt at first, gum roentgen 
at least. 

5. With the preposition auf/ as : auf tag foefte/ in the best 
manner, auf'g frfjonjte/ most beautifully. 

The following are Irregular : — 
SBatb/ soon Corap. d;er Sup. efyeft 



©ern/ willingly 


?) 


lieber 


„ Itebft 


*Ked)t/ rightly 


» 


rtdbtigeu 


„ vtd)ttgjt 


2Bof;I/ well 


» 


beffer 


„ bept. 



ADVERBS. 69 

§ 78. The application of the following adverbs requires 
particular attention : — 

©djon expresses an opposition to a later time, as : e§ bonnert 
fdjon, it thunders already ; but sometimes it signifies also cer- 
tainty or probability, e. g. (5r ttnrb fdjon fommen, he will 
certainly come. 

Qtxft, as an adverb of time, marks the precedence of an 
action, e. g. SSon Sugenb ouf ^ah' id) geternt gefyorcfyen/ erffc metnen 
(gltevn unb bann etner ©ottfyeit/ from my youth up I have learnt 
to obey, first my parents and then a deity. — Gothe. It signi- 
fies limitation in eS ift erffc ©in ltf)r, it is but one o'clock. 

©onft/ means otherwise, as for the rest, e, g. $atte ben Stfd}/ 
fonft f&Ut zx, hold the table, otherwise it will fall. SOSte ttar bie 
ftufnafyme fonft am #ofe ? as for the rest, how was the reception 
at court ? — Schiller. As an adverb of time it signifies formerly, 
e. g. ©onft war eg anberS/ formerly it was different. 

#tn and fyer, are thus distinguished : fyin implies a direction 
away from, and tjer towards, the speaker. The same significa- 
tion prevails also in adverbs compounded with f)tn and %tx f 
as : ©efyen (gte fytnein, go in. $ommen ©ie Ijerab/ come down. 

£>a, as an adverb of place, signifies there, e. g. ha Uegt ba§ 
S3ud)/ there lies the book. As an adverb of time it signifies 
then, e. g.&a tarn ex, then he came, 25a is used besides as a 
conjunction, expressing the cause, as : %<$ farm frofylid) fdfjetben/ 
bet metne 2Cugen btefen Sag gefeijn, I can gladly de^lt, since my 
eyes have seen this day. — Schiller. 

SDctfyer/ as an adverb, is local, e. g. £>et getnb lommt bafyer, the 
enemy comes that way ; as a conjunction it indicates the 
cause, e. g. ©er 2Btnb f)at fid) ge&nbert/ batjer ift eg fd)6neS ^Better, 
the wind has changed, therefore it is fine weather. 

£enn/ as an adverb, is interrogative, e. g. ©tnb nut benn 
wefyrtoS ? are we then defenceless? — Schiller. As a conjunc- 
tion it is causal, corresponding to the English conjunction for, 
as : (Solbaten roaven t^euer, benn Me SKenge gefyt nad) bem ©Xuct/ 
soldiers were scarce, for the multitude runs after fortune, — 
Schiller. 



70 PREPOSITIONS. 

§l\in, as an adverb of time, means now, e. g. (gg ift entfdjieben/ 
nun tjr'g gut/ it is decided, now it is well. — Schiller. As a con- 
junction, it expresses the cause, e. g. Unb nun ber £tmmel beinen 
©dforitt fytefyer geientf/ fo tofi bag SKitletb ftegert/ and since heaven 
directed hither thy steps, let compassion conquer. — Schiller. 

(Sin and in : (Sin expresses a direction to the interior of an 
object, but is only used in compound words, and not by itself 
alone, e. g. £)ag Unglucf/ rooretn er ft'd) jtur$te, mac gi'0J5/ the mis- 
fortune which befel him was great. 3n/ in compound words, 
does not imply motion like etn, but a state of rest, as : @g ijr 
nid)tg mefyr bartn/ there is nothing more in it. 

2M)t is an adverb to the adjective gut/ as: (Sx befinbet fid) 
n>oi)(/ he is well ; but it implies often conjecture and interro- 
gation, e.g. ©ie £ft roobl franf.? she is perhaps ill ? 

9ttd)t simply denies, but is sometimes added to another ne- 
gation in order to give more force to it. This practice, how- 
ever, must not be imitated, although it is often found in our best 
writers, e. g. (£g tjt tetn <£d)nee ntcfyt/ eg ftnb Seine ©d;tt>ane/ it is 
not snow, nor are they swans. — Gbthe. 

SSorber must not be confounded with ebe/ beoor and oor. 
33orher is an adverb of time: e. g. ©r. bat eg fcfyon worker get^an/ 
he has done it already before. (She and beoor are subordinate 
conjunctions : e. g. SBir roaren frofye fflienfcfyen/ eb' 3&v famt/ we 
were happy people, before you came. — Schiller. SSor is a pre- 
position, in«feating time or place: e.g. (Sr ging oor jwdlf Ufyt 
meg/ he went away before twelve o'clock. @g ftef>t ucr 3bnen ; it 
stands before you. 

§ 79. PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions are usually prefixed to nouns in order to express 
the nature of the relation that exists between two nouns, or a 
verb and a noun : e. g. ber SSogel auf bem £3aume ftngt fd)6ri/ the 
bird upon the tree sings beautifully, ©er SSogel fliegt auf ben 
33aum/ the bird flies upon the tree. 

Note 1. — Sometimes prepositions are also prefixed to pronominal ad- 
" verbs, particularly to those indicating time and place, as: @r. gebt 90n 



PREPOSITIONS. 7] 

t)icr nad) $)avt3/ he goes from here to Paris, gur \t§t tft C§ genitg/ for 
the present it is enough. 

Note 2. — The notion of the preposition is often supplied by the in- 
flection of the noun alone: e. g. (&V fd)rieb miVr instead of, er fd)rieb an 
mid)/ he wrote to me. 

The prepositions originally designated, and even now desig- 
nate, for the most part, some relation of space, i. e. either a di- 
rection to or from a place, the point in space (where ?), or merely 
the vicinity of, or the approach to a place. Besides these ori- 
ginal and local significations of the prepositions, they are fre- 
quently used to indicate also Time, Manner, Cause and Effect, 
and the relations of an Object or an Attribute. 

Note. — The right use of the prepositions is, in German, as difficult as in 
any other language, especially on account of the various relations which 
they serve to indicate, being expressed in two languages very often by 
entirely different prepositions: e.g. (5r gefet nad) granfretd)/ he 'goes to 
France. (56 roar bte ®<fyla$t bet ©rat>eltngert/ it was the battle at Gra- 
velingen. — Gbthe. @ic ftnb erjumt auf mid)/ you are angry with me. — 
Gothe. (gte benlt nid)t mebr an mid)/ she thinks no more of me. 

According to their government, the prepositions are divided 
into the following four classes : — 

I. — Prepositions with the Genitive. 

£angg/ along Saut/ by virtue of 

2tnjtatt or ftatt, instead of mtteU, \ 
£alben or batbetv on account of SSetmitteijr J" ty means of 

2£uf?erbalb/ on the outside Ungeadjtet/ notwithstanding 

Snne rfcalb, inside Unfetm, 1 

©berhotb/ above umwftj « ot ^ from 

Unterhatb/ below SSetmoge/ by virtue of 

£)ie6feitS/ on this side Um=nriUeri/ ] 

SenfeitS, on that side 2Begen, J ° n aCCOunt ° f 

.Kraft, by virtue of Srofr, in spite of 

SSdfjrenb/ during 3ufoKge/ according to. 
Gsnnano,/ along 

Note. — Most of these prepositions are originally nouns which have been 
gradually reduced to particles, but have preserved the power of governing 
a genitive case. They are termed spurious prepositions. 



72 



PREPOSITIONS. 



3ufolge governs the dative when it follows its noun : e. g. 
Seiner SQletnung jufolge/ according to his opinion. 

©ntlariQ/ when it follows its case, requires the accusative, as : 
@r Qteng ten gtuf enttang, he walked along the river. 

<%>albm is used when the noun is accompanied by the article, 
but halber/ when it is not: e.g. ©er -greunbfdjaft halben — greunb- 
fd)a[t ^atber/ for the sake of friendship. $alben and halber are 
always put after the noun they govern. 

SBegen and ungeacfytet may follow their noun as well~as pre- 
cede it. 

2Cufjerhalb and innerfyalb are sometimes used by good writers 
with the dative : e. g. Snnerfyalb bem @rabe/ within the grave. — 
Lessing. 

%xo% and ldng§ are also used with the dative. 

II. Prepositions with the Dative. 

2Cu§/ out of, from Sftadv after, to 

%\\§zk, out of 9tdd)ft/ next to 

Set/ near SRebfi/ with, besides 

SSinnen/ within (Sammt, together with 

©ntgegen/ towards (Sett/ since 

©egenuber/ opposite 23on/ of 

©em ap/ conformable §kt/ to 

SERit/ with 3utt)tber/ against. 

iVote l.— (Sntg-gen, gegenuber/ gemdfj and jmtuber stand generally 
after the noun. 

Note 2. — SJttt is found connected with the accusative in the adverbial 
phrase mit etng/ instead of mit etnem %Ral, at once: e. g. jcbon htelten 
mix if)ti fur oerloren, ale au§ SKauch unb glamme mit etn§ er cor ung 
ftanb/ we already thought him lost, when all at once, out of smoke and 
flame, he appeared before us. — Lessing. 

III. Prepositions with the Accusative. 
SStS/ till £>f)ne/ without 

Surd), through ©onber/ without 

pi*/ for Urn; around, about 

©egen (gen)/ towards SBiber/ against. 



PREPOSITIONS. 73 

Note 1. — $itt must not be confounded with 00t/ although they were 
originally the same word, and are not, even now, always distinguished by 
our best writers : e.g. £)et etnftfcafte hornet/ bet fid) ba& ganje 2>afot 
forgfatttg fur jeben gebttritt hutet/ &c., the serious Roman who guards 
himself carefully during the whole year from every false step, &c. — Gothe. 
SOSit fteben sot unfer ganb/ mit ftefeen oor unfete 2Beibet/ unfete £tnbet/ 
we stand for our country, for our wives, for our children. — Schiller. 

Note 2. — $Ut in connection with maS is not a preposition, and there- 
fore governs no case : e. g. mag fut* ein SOlenfd) tfr et ? what sort of a man 
is he? 

Note 3.— £)bne/ in jmeifelSofine/ without doubt, is used with the geni- 
tive. 

IV. Prepositions with the Dative and Accusative. 

"Xn, on Uebet/ over 

2Cuf/ upon Unter/ under 

Winter/ behind 33ot/ before 

3n, in 3mtfd)en/ between. 
Sfteben/ near 

These prepositions govern the dative when they indicate 
the point in space, to the question, where ? e. g. 2)a§ SSud) 
liegt auf bem Sifd)C/ the book lies upon the table : but they 
govern the accusative when they imply the direction or motion, 
physical as well as mental, to a certain point; as at the 
question, where to ? e. g. Segen <Sie bct§ SSutf) auf ben Stfd), put 
the book upon the table. £>aS lam mtr nid)t in ben (Sinm this 
did not come into my mind. 3d) Qeije in ben (fatten/ I am going 
into the garden. If the motion be merely within a place, and 
not directed towards a certain point, the dative must be used : 
e. g. (St cjeht in bem (fatten/ he walks (about) in the garden. 

Note. — 25ot is connected with the genitive in t»0t 2tttet§/ formerly. 

§ 80. If the prepositions be united with the pronouns bag 
that, and \va& what, ba$ is often changed into bat and mci§ into 
V00f and contracted with the preposition that follows : e. g. 
babutd), bafut/ bamit, bason/ bajU/ &c, instead of burd) ba$ f fur 
bctS, mit bem, son bem/ §u bem/ &c. — SGSobutd)/ mofut/ mown/ instead 
of butcb n?ag/ fut mag/ &c. 

H 



74 PREPOSITIONS. 

If the preposition hegin with a vowel, bo and n?o are changed 
into bar and wot : e. g. borouS/ boron/ barauf boruber/ boruntev, 
and'worauS/ rooron/ roorauf/ wortn, vooxuUv, &c. 

§ 81. Many prepositions, in order to complete their notion, 
require an adverb to follow the noun or adverb governed by 
the preposition : e. g. son beute on/ from this day. SSon Sugenb 
ouf, from the time of youth. Wad) oben bin/ upwards. Urn ben 
Sifdj berum, around the table. 

§ 82. Genuine and Spurious Prepositions. 

According to their signification, the prepositions must be 
divided into two great classes, viz. genuine or original prepo- 
sitions, and spurious or derived prepositions. The chief dis- 
tinction of these two classes is, that the genuine preposition 
assumes various meanings in the different relations which it 
serves to indicate, whilst each spurious preposition is used only 
in one particular signification, i. e. in that which it plainly ex- 
presses : e. g. onftott never admits of any other signification but 
that of " instead of." The spurious prepositions, therefore, 
require no further consideration. 

Note. — Spurious prepositions have sprung partly from nouns, and 
partly from adverbs. From nouns are derived : ©tott (onftott)/ bolben, 
oberbalb/ unterbalb/ tnnetbolb/ oujietbatb/ btcefcttg/ jenfettg/ troft/ 
oetmoge, (angS/ lout/ tuofc/ roegeii/ urn— n>illen# sufolge. From adverbs 
are derived: btnnen, neben/ nebjt, fammt/ enticing, ndcbft/ jnrifdjen/ 
unwctt, roabrenb, ungeod)tet/ oermitteljt/ \e\t, gemap/ fonber, obne/ 
Suwiber/ gcgenuber/ big. 

§ 83. Signification and Use of the Genuine 

Prepositions. 

%n. 

"Ktit with the dative, indicates the point in space (where ?), 
and the point of time (when ?) ; with the accusative it indicates 
the direction (where to ?) : e. g. (£v ftebt on ber Sfyuv/ he stands 
at the door, ©ie ftorb on ienem SJcorgen/ she died on that morn- 
ing, ©ie geben on ben SKbein, they go to the Rhine. 

Note. — 2fn is used instead of " in," with the following words : on etnem 



PREPOSITIONS. 75 

£)vti, in a place ; an bet* SStelle, in the spot; am $ta§e/ in the place ; 
am Ceben, in life. 

Xn, with the dative, designates also the manner, but only in 
connection with the superlative, and contracted with the article 
tern into am : e. g. Unter alien SRittern gefallt er mtr am befren/ 
amongst all knights he pleases me best. — Gbthe. 2Cm liebjten 
fpracft id) ibn alkin, I would like best to speak to him alone. 

By an, with the dative, is also indicated the reason for know- 
ing a thing by its external appearance : e. g. ?0?an fiebt Sir's an 
ten 2Cugen an, gettrifj/ £)u haft gercetnt, it may be known by your 
eyes, you have certainly been crying. — Gbthe. SJlaii fennt tin 
SSogel an ben gebern/ the bird is known by his feathers. 

1(n, with the dative, is used after the following verbs and 
adjectives : bir.bern/ leiben/ ftcrten/ fid) r5d;en, fid) terfunbigenr fid) 
fdttigen, gtetcben, ubertreffen, nad)j!eben/ votifyen, gelegen fetti/ groeifeln 
cerjwctfetn/ junetjmen/ abnebmem feblen/ mangels gebredjen/ arm 
retd)/ leer/ grof, flein, gtetd), jung/ abnltd), ftarf, fdjroad)/ uberlegen/ 
tranf, labm/ frud)tbar: e. g. @r jtarb an ber ^eft/ he died of the 
plague. 2Cn frobem SDcutl) unb SEtlten roetd) id) fetnem, in joyous 
spirit and will I yield to none. — Gothe. 2Cn Mnfdjen leer/ bed) 
nid)t an greuben arm/ void of wishes, but not poor in joys. — 
Schiller. 

The object of pleasant sensations is indicated by an with 
the dative, after the following words : fid) wetben/ fid) ergo^en/ 
Ztyil nebmen/ greube haben/ Suft baben/ ©efatfen tya&eri/ Sroft baben : 
e. g. 3d) babe letne Suft baraiv I have no pleasure in it. — Gothe. 
£>u nabmft Sheif an meinem tiefen ©cfymerje/ you took a part in my 
deep sorrow. — Schiller. 

%n, with the accusative, follows the verbs : benfeii/ glauben/ 
jid) geroobntn/ fid) fefjren/ mahnen : e. g. @r glaube an Siebe unb Sreue/ 
let him believe in love and faith. — Schiller, $ebren @te fid) 
nid)t an metne Sbtanen/ do not mind my tears. 

Note 1. — "Kn, with the accusative, expresses sometimes an indefinite 
number: e. g. Sittan fanb an fed)g ^)adete mtt Ser§!p'g SBappen/ they 
found about six parcels with Terzky's arms. — Schiller. 

Note 2.— 2Cn indicates also alternation or turn : e. g. e$ tjt an mix, it 



76 PREPOSITIONS. 

is my turn. £)te Stfetye I ommt an mta> my turn comes. 3e$t ift'S an 
unS ©efe^C t>orsufd)reiben/ now it is for us to prescribe laws. — Schiller. 

2Cuf/ indicates an immediate contact from above : e. g. (Sr 
liegt auf ber (Srbe/ he lies upon the earth. 

It designates also the place where something is done or per- 
formed : e. g. <gr gefyt auf ben Sttatft/ auf ba$ StotytyauS/ auf bte 
4?odfosett/ auf bie Sagb/ auf ba$ Canb/ auf ben S3aU/ auf bie 3>oft/ he 
goes to the market, to the council-house, to the wedding, to 
the chase, to the country, to the hall, to the post. (5r tfi auf 
bem Sanbe/ auf ber SReife/ auf ber Sftejfe/ &c, he is in the country, 
on a journey, at the fair, &c. 

2Cuf/ with the accusative, indicates moreover a precise time 
and measure, a space of time, and, in connection with MS/ the 
extreme limit : e. g. (Sr roufjte e§ auf bie SKinute/ he knew it to the 
minute. (Sr wrfdjob eg M§ auf bte lefcte @tunbe/ he deferred it to 
the last hour. £)u tter-lterffc mid)/ £arl/ auf mele 3atyre— Sfyoren 
nennen e§ auf en?tg, you lose me, Charles, for many years — fools 
call it for ever. — Schiller. 

2Cuf/ with the accusative, indicates also (like " after " in 
English) a change in time, as : auf blut'ge <Sd)lad)ten folQt ©efana, 
unb £an§/ after bloody battles follow song and dance. — Schiller. 
Unb SBelte auf SBSeUe jerrtnnet/ and wave after wave flows away. 

2Cuf/ with the accusative, designates the object of confidence 
and trust, after the verbs : oevtraueri/ red)nen/ tjertroften/ tro|en/ 
podjeri/ fid) berufen, fid) t>erlaffcn/ and after the adjective ftolj: e.g. 
SJBet) benen/ bie auf ©id) oertrauen/ woe to those that confide in 
thee. — Schiller. £)er ©efangene if! ftolj auf fetne Unfdjulb; the 
prisoner is proud of his innocence. — Gbthe. 

2Cuf/ with the accusative follows also tyoffeti/ ftnnen/ gotten/ 
beftefyen/ beru^en/ fid) ftutjen/ uerjidjten/ fid) uetftetyen, anlommen (to 
depend)/ roavten, Qefaf t/ bofe/ erjurnt/ etferfudjtia./ netbtfdv erboft/ and 
argwSfymfd) : e. g. 25er ^erjoa, ftnnt auf SSenratty/ the duke meditates 
treachery, ©te untb b&fe auf mid) wevbert/ she will become angry 
with me. — G'dthe. ©v. wax etferfudjttg auf fetne ©tyre/ he was 
iealous of his honour. — Schiller. 



PREPOSITIONS. 77 

2Cuf/ with the accusative, is used with the substantives SBetfe 
and %vt, whether they be really expressed or not : e. g. ©te 
tfjat eg auf etne anbere SBeife* she did it in another manner, fffitr 
Menen tf)m auf unfere livt, we serve him after our manner. 

Note. — 2Cuf/ with 2Bea,/when it signifies manner, is connected with the 
dative, as : 3d) will auf Mrgerm SOSege mir Cidjt cerfchaffen/ 1 will pro- 
cure light in a shorter way. — Schiller. 

2Cuf/ w r ith the superlative in the accusative, and with the 
article ba$, designates also the manner : e. g. 2Cuf§ genauejle, 
most precisely. 2Cufg freunblidjfte/ in the most friendly way. 
2Cuf ba$ bejjte/ in the best manner. 

2UtS/ as out in English, designates the place and direction in 
reference to an inclosed space : e. g. (Sr !6mmt ctu§ tern £aufe, 
he comes out of the house. 

2Cu§ indicates also the material out of which something is 
made : e. g. SKtd) fcf)uf auS groberm (Stoffe tie 9latux, nature 
created me out of ruder stuff. — Schiller. 

2Cu6, similar to from in English, indicates an inward reason : 
e. g, dv that c§ au§ £afj/ he did it from hatred. 

2CuS/ indicates frequently an attributive relation : e. g. ©etn 
gveunb auS $part3, his friend from Paris. 

% u jj e r. 

2£ufjer/ indicates the place where, but in opposition to in, as : 
@r tft auf ec bem #aufe/ he is out of the house. 

It designates also the relations of a condition : e. g. £etn 
SBruber ijt aufjer. ©efaht/ thy brother is out of danger. 

"Kufer. also designates exclusion : e. g. 2fufer fetnem SScttbev roar 
Sitemanb bat except his brother no one was there. 

Set. 

SSct/ indicates the place (where ?), as vicinity : e. g. SSIciben ©te 
bei ung, remain with us. Dffenbad) bet granffuvt/ Offenbach near 
Frankfort, £)te <Sd)tad)t bet £eip§tg/ the battle of Leipsic. 
h3 



78 PREPOSITIONS. 

SSet indicates the time in bet Sage — in the day time ; bet 9tad)t, 
by night ; and bet jkiten, betimes. SSei jebem 2tbfd)teb jtttert mir 
ba$ ^erj, at every parting my heart trembles. — Schiller. 

It designates (like " at" in English) a condition, and an 
adversative reason : e. g. Sod) ©cfcauei* ergretfen bet btefem furd^ter= 
tfdjen Seamen mid)/ yet horrors seize me at this fearful name. — 
Schiller. 

£)urd). 

Surd)/ denotes the same direction as through in English, as : 
(Ste gtengen burdj ben ©arteii/ they went through the garden. 

Surd), indicates frequently a means : e. g. Surd) falfd)eg 
steugmf gtaubt er ftd) $u rettem by false testimony he thinks to 
save himself. 

gfir. 

gtir, corresponds generally in its signification with fi for " in 
English : e. g. 2Cud) bie SSfirger evft&ren fief) fur iijri/ the citizens 
also declare themselves for him. — Schiller. 2Bir jrefyen alte fur 
Ginen Statin/ we all stand for one man.— Schiller. SaS ijl fur 
metne £6ntgtn genug, that is enough for my queen. 

gur, follows fatten (to consider)/ erfl&ren, attSgeben, getten, 
od)ten/ as : SRidjt fur wrtoren ad)t' uty's, I do not consider it lost. — 
Schiller. SBSir tonnten gelten fur etne gan$eS SJotf, we could pass 
for a whole nation. — Schiller. 

©eg en (gen). 

©egeii/ like " against " and " towards " in English, expresses 
the direction where to ? e. g. bte 2Bot!en gict;en gegen Bergen/ the 
clouds go towards the east. 

©egen is particularly used to indicate love and hatred : e. g. 
Sa§ £eer jog gegen ben getnb, the army marched against the 
enemy. (Sr fyanbette fefjc guttg gegen tyn, he acted very kindly 
towards him. 

It indicates also an indefinite time and number : e. g. (5§ 
gefd;at) gegen ?£Korgen, it happened towards morning. (SS maren 
u)ver gegen $unbert, there were about a hundred of them. 



PREPOSITIONS. 79 

It indicates likewise a comparison, as : SKSaS tjt mit alk§ gegen 
©id) ? what is every thing to me in comparison with you ? — 
Schiller. @r tjt gegen Sid) etn SKiefe/ he is a giant in comparison 
with thee. 

£ inter. 

Winter/ indicates" the place and direction in opposition to oor : 
e. g. £)ci6 £)orf liegt Winter. tern SSerge, the village lies behind the 
mountain. (Sr tvat Winter ben S3aum> he stepped behind the tree. 

3n. 

The preposition in, with the dative, indicates the place 
(where ?), and with the accusative, the direction (where to ?) 
e. g. @r tft in bem SBatbe/ he is in the wood. 3d) gef)e in ben 
$£alb f I am going into the wood. 

It agrees with the same English preposition in most of the 
relations which it expresses : SKein greunb tft in ($tfa$x, my friend 
is in -danger, ©in 2Cugenbttc£ jertrfimmerte/ rca§ wit in Satjcen 
bauten/ a moment destroyed what we built in years. — Schiller. 
3n menig Sagen £ann fid) met eretgnetv many things may happen 
in a few days. — Schiller. 

SDlit/ in German expresses the same relation as with in 
English : e. g. ^prec^t mit (Maffenfyeit, speak composedly. — 
Schiller. 3d) redjte mit ben ©ottecn md)t, I do not dispute with 
the Gods. — Goihe. 3d) Xtcbe ofyne £offnung, mit SobeSangjt/ unb 
mit @ef<u)r be§ Sebeng/ I love without hope, with the anguish of 
death, and with danger of my life. — Schiller. %f)V follt mit mic 
jufrieben \zin f you shall be content with me. — Schiller. 

ft ad). . 

9la<b/ indicates the direction where to, like to in English, 
and is used with names of places and countries, but not with 
names of persons : e. g. (§,t gei)t nad) Seutfdjlanb; nad) 35er(in/ 
nad) £aufe/ he goes to Germany, to Berlin, home. 



80 PREPOSITIONS. 

Sftad) follows the verbs : ffteben/ oeilangen, ii*ad}ten, ftd) feijnen/ 
forfdjert/ fragen, and begtertg : e. g. @u tzafyttt nad) (Sfyre unb SRufcim 
he strives after honor and glory. 2£te fefjn' id) mid) nad) bcr 
erwunfd)ten Soft/ how do I long after the wished-for burthen. — 
Go the. 

It corresponds often with " according to :" e.g. ©c if! nad) 
feiner 2Cugfprac^e etn grangofe, he is a Frenchman by his pronun- 
ciation. — Ba§ f)at er eerbient? — SRad) beg ©efe^eS SBort/ ben Sob. — 
Sen Sob nad} £riegSred)t, what has he deserved? — Death, ac- 
cording to the letter of the law.— Death, according to the right 
of war. — Schiller. 

9la<i), like " after" in English, expresses sometimes an inten- 
tion : e. g. Sr greift nad) bent ©d;u>erte, he grasps at the sword. 

It indicates the time, as : $ommen @ie nad) groei ttt)t ttneber, 
come again after two o'clock. 

U e b e x - 

Uebeiv in its local meaning, is opposed to unter, and indicates 
frequently, at the same time, an extension over a surface: e.g. 
(Sin bid)ter Sttebel uerbreitete fid) fiber bag ©efitbe, a dense fog spread 
over the fields. It designates likewise the direction through 
and over a place, as: @r gefyt fiber 9tom nad) 9ieapel/ he goes 
through Rome to Naples. £)a§ $eer ging fiber ben SRHint the army 
crossed the Rhine. 

Sometimes it expresses the relations of number and quantity, 
e. g. £ie (Stabt tjat nid)t fiber, taufenb ©inroofyneu/ the town has 
not above a thousand inhabitants. 

It denotes, with the accusative, in some cases, a relation of 
time corresponding to "during"' in English: e.g. (5c arbeitete 
ben gattjen Sag fiber/ he worked during the whole day. 

The object of grief, joy, and astonishment is indicated by 
fiber with the accusative after gfirneii/ fdjclrciv foment/ tlagen, 
wcinctti fid) drgern/ ftd) betvuben/ ftd) befdjrceren, fid) cnttfijten/ frofc 
locfen/ erjtaunen, ftd) nuinbent/ en|fidt, as : Gjc llagt fct>r fiber fyt; he 
complains much of him. @r wunbei't ftd) barfibeiv he wonders 
at it. 



PREPOSITIONS. 81 

The relation of dominion is indicated by fiber, with the accu- 
sative after the verbs gebieteri/ Ijerrftfert/ flatten/ ftegen, &c, as : 
fie gebtetet uber 2CUe$, she rules over all. 

Note.— The antiquated ob, over, is sometimes used to express the point 
in space where? e.g.: £)b bem '2Cttar hteng etne Gutter ©otteS/ over the 
altar was hanging a Madonna.— Schiller. 

Unter. 

Unretv in its original and local signification, denotes oppo- 
sition to uber, as : unter bee (Srbe Itegt e§ sergraben, it lies buried 
under the earth. Sometimes it corresponds to amongst and 
amidst in English : e. g. (Saul unter ben spropt)etcn, Saul amongst 
the prophets. 2Ber unter btefen retdjt an unfern grtebtanb? who 
amongst these equals our Friedland ? — Schiller. 

Um. 

Urn/ besides its local signification of " around, 1 " designates 
often an exchange : e. g. 2CtteS ijt eud) fett urn ©elb/ to you 
everything is venal. — Schiller. 

It is used to indicate time, as : fommen @xc um trier ttt)r, come 
at four o'clock. ££ir fattetn nur um SDttttevnadftt/ we saddle only 
at midnight. — Burger. 

Uni/ designates sometimes the relation of extent or number in 
comparisons, as : (Sr iffc um mele 3at)re iunger, he is younger by 
many years. Um fo griper mar feine greube, so much the greater 
was his joy. 3$ fet)e um etnen grcur.b mid) reid)er/ I see myself 
richer by a friend. — Schiller. 

It indicates a loss after fommen, brtngen/ betrugen/ gefd)et)en : 
e. g. Sag brtngt mid) um mem Seben/ this deprives me of my 
life. G>;§ ijt um tt)n gefd)et)en, he is done for. (§r lam fet)r jung 
um feine (Sltern, he lost his parents very young. 

Note. — The Participles of fommen and brtngen are in this case frequently 
omitted: e.g. 3d) bin um meinen @d)tummer (i.e. gefommen)/ I am 
deprived of my slumber.— Schiller. Unb bte 2CUe ft'nb um it)r ©elb/ and 
these will all have lost their money.— Schiller. 



82 PREPOSITIONS. 

The object of grief is indicated by urn after tcetnen/ ftagen/ 
trauern, ftd) betruben, gramem ftd) fumtnern, beneiben* tetb tfyun/ e.g. : 
•SSein' urn ben SSruber/ bod) nicr^t urn tin ©eliebten iceine/ weep for 
your brother, but weep not for the beloved. — Schiller. (S3 
ttjut mtr leib urn meine SDberjtert/ I am sorry for my colonels. — 
Schiller. 

The object of our will and desire is expressed by urn after 
bitten/ fleben, tcerben/ bufyten? ftd) bemufyen, fpieten, tofen, ftretten, 
fampfcn, fec^ten : e. g. 3d) fleijc £>id) urn brei Sage siett/ I implore 
thee for the time of three days. — Schiller. 3d) bitte in biefem 
SSrtef urn eine gtcfse ©unft/ I ask a great favour in this letter. 

SSon. 

S3on/ indicates the direction where from? e.g. fie fommen con 
tyaxH, they come from Paris. 6r lommt con bet* ©onou/ he 
comes from the Danube. 

It indicates often a predicative relation: e. g. (SS fann nid)t 
won Salter fein, it cannot last. — Schiller. Qt ift ton 2(bel/ he is 
noble. @g ift con (Sifen, it is of iron. 

It indicates, likewise, the relations of an attribute, especially 
with names of towns and countries, and also with numerals, as : 
2Me Sage con Skrlin, the situation of Berlin. £er £6nig con 
granf retcb, the king of France, ©in Scatter con .Kopf unb #er$ 
ift uberatt iciUfommen/ a cavalier of head and heart is welcome 
everywhere. — G'Othe. (St fyat ba$ ©tucf con Saufenben gegrunbet/ 
he has founded the happiness of thousands. — Schiller. 

S3on/ designates a separation after the words befreien, erretten/ 
erlofen, tyiten, ftct) erfyoten, fvei/ rein : e. g. SSer errettet mid) con 
feinet* SSutt) J who saves me from his rage ! — Schiller. @r ift 
fret con (3d)ittb, he is free from guilt. 

S3on/ follows the adjectives fd)6n, ^df lid)/ bteid> rotb, angenefjm: 
e.g. (St ifi nid)t fyaflid) con ©ejktt, his figure is not ugly. — 
Schiller. 2Cngene()m con ©ejtatt/ of agreeable figure. — Gothe. 

Son indicates a judgment after benfen/ meinen/ gtauben, tvaumcri/ 
fprec^eii/ erjdt)len/ t)6ren/ erfafyren, fatten/ as: 28aS ben£en <Sie con 
biefem SOtonne, what do you think of this man? (St fpricijt 336fe$ 



PREPOSITIONS. 83 

»on ifrni, he speaks ill of him. s JJian fprid)t son Sfynen, they speak 
of you. 

Son often denotes the means : e. g. ©terben raujj con unferer 
£anb iebe lebenbe Seete/ every living soul must die by our hand. 
— Schiller. 

©at. 

$$ot, is opposed to fyintev behind : e. g. @6 gefd)af) cor unfevn 
2Cugen/ it was done before our eyes. SSor rate lag em bidjtcr 
SBalb/ a thick wood lay before me. Steten jte not ben ©piegel/ 
step before the looking-glass. 

It denotes also time (dative), as : SSor enter (Stunbe gieng cr 
rueg/ he went away an hour ago. 3d) fat) tfyn nod) t>or ^uujem/ 
I saw him but a short time ago. 

The object of fear and horror is indicated by oor, with the 
dative, after beroafyren/ perrcafyren, (d)u|en/ fyuten, fcfyeuen/ furd)tem 
et[d)recfen/ jitterm grauem fttetjert/ bergen/ efetti/ ftcfer/ &c. : e. g. 
Srug £)tdj 25ein $)ferb fo letd)t tyeretti/ unb fdwute oor tern ffi(utgevud;,e 
md)t/ unb »or bera ©eifte rait bera blanfen ©djroert/ ber an bcu >pforte 
£)td) empfangt ? Did your horse bear you in here so easily, and 
not dread the smell of blood and the spirit with the shining 
sword, who receives you at the door? — Gbthe. (St erfdjrttft uov 
fetner etgenen SOtodjt/ he is terrified at his own power. — Schiller. 

SSor/ (with the dative) designates also the active cause of an 
effect suffered by the subject, as : Qt fonnte t>or ?Mbtgfett unb 
hunger laura etwa§ fyeroorbrtngen/ he could scarcely utter any- 
thing from fatigue and hunger. — Gothe. 

2Btber. 

This preposition indicates the relation of opposition and 
resistance like gegen, but is much less used than cegen : e. g. 
3d) erbrad) ben SBrief ratber aBidem raiber KBtllen raup id) ii;n U\en, 
I broke open the letter against my will, against my will I must 
read it. — Lessing. @6 gefyt if)ra trtber bie 9^atur/ it is against his 
nature. — Schiller. 



84 PREPOSITIONS. 

3«. 

This preposition expresses the direction where to ? especially 
with names of persons, as : 3d) gebe ju tbm/ I am going to him. 
SOSobin? — jum gurftcn/ whither? — to the prince. — Schiller. 

It indicates also, in opposition with ttom the terminating 
point of a motion, as : @r flud)tete uon 2anb gu Sanb/ he fled from 
land to land. Unb bebenb bort man. oon Sftunb ju ?£Kunb, and 
trembling is heard from mouth to mouth. — Schiller. 

The preposition §u indicates also, with proper names of 
cities and villages, and $au§ (home) the place, wh ere , e.g.: 
(St lebt jefct §u Sonbon, he is living now in London, (gr ftubicrt 
S'u Sfna/ he studies at Jena. <5te tjl ntd)t gu #aufe/ she is not 
at home. 

By gu is particularly indicated that which a thing becomes, 
that which is, or is to be effected by an activity, especially after 
the verbs and adjectives signifying: mevberi/ madjeri/ mablen, 
ernennen, geretdjem l)inreid)eii/ nu§en, taugen, retfv tauottd)/ gefdjicft : 
e. g. £)aS @i§ rotrb gu SBaffer, the ice becomes water. 3um 
SSerr&tber. roerbe x\id)t, do not become a traitor. (S3 gereicbt ibm 
gur Sbre/ it does him honor. 

3u/ is used also after notfytgen, guringen, ermabnen, rattjeti/ berebcn/ 
retgcn/ »erfubrerw bemten, geneigt, rmtltg : e. g. 3um £ampfe muf er 
fid) bereiten/ he must prepare for battle. — Schiller. 

$u, expresses the manner of local direction in : 311 $ufse geben, 
to go on foot. $u spferbe/ gu SBagen/ gu SBaffer, gu Canbe reifen/ 
to travel on horseback, in a carriage, by water, by land. 

JNote. — 3u is used likewise in the expressions : 511 SSettC/ gu Stfcbe/ 
gur ©djute/ gur ^ivcbe/ gu ©chtffe geberi/ to go to bed, to dinner, to 
school, to church, on board a ship. 

sht/ is connected with 3ett and SKal: e. g. SBir feben unS gum 
ie£en SOtol/ we see each other for the last time. ©ie mabnen mid) 
gur redjten 3ett/ they remind me at the right time. 

Note. — 3u frequently indicates, with the words binetn, btnauS, bemtl/ 
berauSf the direction of a motion, or the place itself : e. g. (§r fprang gum 
genftccbinaug/hejumped out of the window. (Sr fommtgumSfyore berr' 



CONJUNCTIONS. 85 

he comes in through the door. (St geht JUttl £aufe t)tnau§, he goes out 
of the house, £letn SRolant/ get)' §Ut ©tabt fotnab/ little Roland go down 
to the city. — Uhland. 



§ 84. CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions are those indeclinable parts of speech which 
connect sentences, and express the different relations in which 
sentences stand to each other. They are divided into two 
principal classes : — , 

I. Co-ordinative Conjunctions : that is, such as connect two 
equally independent sentences : e. g. S3) fy&w <*uf gu lefceri/ after 
id) tyabt QzUbtf I cease to live, but I have lived. — Gothe. (Sntweber 
3&r fennt mid) nid)t/ ober 3fyr fcib feht boShaft, either you know 
me not, or you are very malicious. — Gothe. 

II. Sub-ordinative Conjunctions : that is, such as connect 
two sentences, one of which is dependent on the other : e. g. 
SSir ft'nb me entfernter oon unfern §GSun(d)en/ ctB menn wtr urn! etn= 
bilben ba£ @ewunfd)te ju beft|eri/ we are never farther from what 
we wish, than when we imagine we possess it.— Gothe. 3$ 
fprache £eutfd), roenn id) fbnnte, 1 would speak German, if I 
could. 

Note 1. — The relative pronouns, and some pronominal adverbs, like the 
conjunctions, possess the power of connecting sentences with each other, 
with this distinction, however, that the genuine conjunction relates to 
the whole sentence, whilst a pronoun relative only refers to a part' of it : 
e. g. #tet tjl ber SSrief/ roelcben er gefchrteben fyat, here is the letter which 
he wrote. 3d) metfj tud)t/ tt>0 er je£t mobnt, I don't know where he now 
lives. 

Note 2. — Conjunctions connect only entire sentences : if they seem to 
connect single words in a sentence, it is in consequence of the contraction 
of two sentences having in common the same subject or predicate ; and, by 
the omission of either of them in one place, the two sentences become 
contracted into one : e. g. £)ein 83atet unb beine Gutter ftnb gu #aufe, 
thy father and thy mother are at home ; instead of, betn JSatet ift gU 
£aufe, unb beine Gutter ift ju £aufe. 



86 



CONJL^CTIONS. 



I. CO-ORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 

They are subdivided into the following : — 

a. Copulative. 

Urtb/ and ^ idE)t all " n ' I not onlv S^ner, further 

2(ud), also Sftid)t Uoh ) ' y (Snblid), at last 

gubem, moreover (Sott>ofyL.al$,aswell as 9Mm (id)/ namely 

tfufjerbem, besides ZtyiU, partly SSte, as 
$ftid)t nur, not only QvftenZ, firstly 
©oribern aud), but also 



2CI6/ as, than. 



(Sonjf/ otherwise 
£)enn, for 
©ntwebet/ either 
Ober/ or 
SSeber/ neither 
SKod)/ nor 



&. Adversative. 



but 



2Cber, ) 
2Wein, ] 
£ingegeri/ on the con- 
trary 
5)od)/ yet 
Sebod)/ however 



£5ennod)/ still 

Sefj"enungearf)tet/ not- 
withstanding 

Snbeffen/ however 

©leid)tt>or;l, notwith- 
standing 

#16/ but. 



£5e§rcegen> 
SeSfcalb, 
©arum/ 
£>enn, for 



c. Causative. 



therefore 



2ttf0/ therefore 
SotQltd), -j 

£)emnad> k consequently. 
SDtftfttn, J 



Note. — Certain particles, called expletive conjunctions, are put into the 
sentence, in order to give more force to it, and to shade the expression. 
Such expletives are: bet/ bentV bod), \a,eben, rool; &c. 



II. SUB-ORDINATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 



~KU f as, when 
aSt$, until 

Seoor, / before 
£5a> as, since 



25ctf, that Dbgtetd),-} 

£)amtt, in order that Cbroohl, [> though 

Snbem, whilst £)bfd)ori/ J 

9tacf)bem, after £)hne...su, without 

£Db/ if, whether Um...5U/ in order to 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



87 



gallSf in case 
3e...ie/ the... the 
Se—bejlo/ the. ..the 
(Sofern/ 
Snfoferrt/ 



J 



as far 



SBdhrenb/ whilst, dur- 
ing 
SBarum/ why 
SBenri/ if 
(Sett/ ) 
(gettbem/ ) 
SBSann/ when 
fSSett/ because 



since 



Stan aud), ^ 
Stan g^zid), I 
S3StC/ as, how 
Sffite aud), however 
SSMewoht/ although 
S3So/if 
SGSofern, if. 



Snnriefew/ in as far 
Ungeacfctet/ notwith- 
standing 

Note 1. — The conjunction baj? is often preceded by other particles: 
e. g. fo baf?, auf bap/ bamit bap/ al§ bap/ &c. 

iVofe 2. — The conjunctions are the most important of the particles ; 
the greatest attention, therefore, is necessary to learn the proper use of 
them. They influence the sense of a whole sentence, being exponents of 
the relation between two sentences, as the prepositions are the exponents 
of the relation which exists between two words : consequently, a single 
mistake in their application may confuse or confound the signification of 
both. They further exercise a decided influence on the construction of 
the sentence. The German language possesses a great number of them, 
by means of which the nicest relations which sentences bear to each other 
can be expressed. 

§ 85. INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are not words belonging to the logical and 
grammatical connection of speech, but are thrown in (as their 
name implies), in order to heighten the expression of joy, pain, 
horror, or astonishment : e. g. 2(d) ! alas ! ah ! £) ! £)h ! oh ! 
@i! eh! £e ! heigh! $fui ! fie! £a ! £tyo ! pooh! &c. 



SYNTAX. 



§ 86. THE SENTENCE. 

Speech is the communication of thoughts through the me- 
dium of words, and each thought thus expressed constitutes a 
sentence, e.g. Ser SRenfd) benft/ man thinks. £a§ Seben ift 
fd)on, life is beautiful. 

In the sentence is generally expressed a judgment, e.g. Ste 
greifyett ift be§ Sttenfchen t)6d)fte§ @ut/ freedom is the best posses- 
sion of man. — Arndt. 

Every sentence consists of two principal members : 

I. The person or thing spoken of — the Subject. 

II. That which is said of that subject — the Predicate. 

Note. — In other words : what is affirmed or denied in the sentence is 
called the predicate ; and that of which it is affirmed or denied is called 
the subject, e. g. Ser SSogel ftngt/ the bird sings. (Sr ft'ngt nid)t, he 
does not sing. 

To these two essential members of the sentence is generally 
joined a third; namely, a word expressing the existence of the 
subject in relation to the predicate, and uniting both together 
— the Copula, e. g. ©ott ift gerecfct, God is just. 

The verb fetn to be, expressing existence, generally repre- 
sents the copula; but every other auxiliary verb of tense or 
mood may serve as a copula, e. g. Ste SSlume §at gebtuhet/ the 
flower has blown. @r fann leferi/ he can read. Set 4 Sttenfd) 
mufl fterben, man must die. 

In the simple tenses of the verb, present and imperfect, the 
copula merges in the predicate, but will appear again in the 
compound tenses, e. g. Sa3 geuer brennt/ the fire burns. Ser 
3?aum fiet/ the tree fell. Sie ©tunbe bat gefdjlagen/ the hour has 
struck. Sic skit ttritb lommert/ time will come. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 89 

In each simple sentence there is but one subject and one 
predicate. 

§ 87. The Subject. 
The subject is always in the nominative case, and it is 
expressed : — 

1. By a Substantive, as: £)er £nabe fptelt/ the boy plays. 
2>er 2Mb ijt bunfel, the forest is dark. 

2. By a Pronoun, as: @r fprtd)t/ he speaks. 2£tt ftnb jufne^ 
bert/ we are content. 

3. By the Infinitive, as : £anbetn ijt letdjt, benfen fd)tt)etv nad) 
bem ©ebad)ten banbetn unbequem, acting is easy, thinking difficult, 
to act according to our thoughts, inconvenient. — Gothe. 

4. By an Adjective, as : £8eif ijt etne garb?, white is a colour. 

Note. — The subject is left out with impersonal verbs, or merely pointed 
at by the indefinite pronoun " c6/' e. g. Sfttd) friert = e§ friett mid)/ 
I am cold. SQUcb &ungert = eg fiungert mid), I am hungry. It is also 
left out in the second person of both numbers in the imperative, e. g. 
£) fomrri/ metrt <©obrt/ unb rette beine Sugenb/ O come, my son, and 
save thy virtue ! — Schiller. Sfyut, aU Wentl it)tr gtt #aufe it>aret, do as 
if you were at home. — Gothe. 

§ 88. The Predicate. 

The Predicate is represented : — 

1. By a Verb, as : £)a£ SOSaffec flteff/ the water flows. £)ie 
See braufet/ the sea roars. 

2. By an Adjective, as : £5er gets ijt fyart/ the rock is hard. 
(St ijt fdjon, he is handsome. 

3. By a Substantive in the nominative case, as : (Sv ijt em 
50?aUr, he is a painter. £)er @d)metterling ijt ©innbilb bet- Unjtetb- 
li d)!eit/ the butterfly is an emblem of immortality. — Uhland. 

4. By a Substantive in the genitive case, or connected with 
a preposition, as : SBtt ftnb (StneS ^erjeng/ (StneS SSlutg, we are of 
one heart, one blood.— Schiller. SCRetn SSruber. tjt in roller gveube, 
my brother is in full joy. — Gothe. 

Note. — In the predicate is contained the principal idea of the whole 
sentence. 

i 3 



90 PRINCIPAL SENTENCE. 

§ 89. The sentence is called pure when it consists only of 
its principal parts, i. e. Subject, Predicate and Copula, or Sub- 
ject and Predicate, e. g. 25er ©ommer ift warm/ the summer is 
warm. £)aS .ftinb wadset/ the child wakes. 

§ 90. The sentence is enlarged when the principal parts of 
it are modified by secondary determinations, as : 

1. The Subject by attributives, adjective as well as substan- 
tive (the latter in the genitive case, or connected with prepo- 
sitions), and pronouns, e. g. £)aS £6ntgtid)e Scfylofl ift fd)bn/ the 
royal castle is beautiful. ©ein SSruber au§ SSerltn iff gefommen, 
his brother from Berlin is come, ©egenwart be§ ©eifteS ift ein 
fetteneS ©efcfyenf bee> £tmmetS/ presence of mind is a rare gift of 
heaven. — Knigge. (Sin fd)6nev guf? ift cine grofe ©abe ber Sfcatur. 
Stefe 2Cnmutf) ift unoetrouftlid)/ a handsome foot is a great gift of 
nature. It is a grace not to be worn out. — Gothe. 

2. The Predicate by adverbs and objective cases, with or 
without prepositions, as : ©teb bem Seufet ein Joaav, fo bift bu fein> 
give the devil but a hair, thou art all his own. — Jean Paul. 
(gt fommt ijeutc 2Cbenb won feiner Sfctfe in6 83ab mit einem greunbe 
gurucf/ he returns this evening from his journey to the baths 
with a friend. tSsiz fpieten mit 33orau6fagungeri/ 2Ct)nungen, unb 
Sroumcn/ unb macfyen baburd) ba$ alltdglidje ficben bebeutenb. 2tber 
roenn ba3 Seben nun felbft bebeutenb roirb/ tt>enn atfeS urn un6 ftct) 
beir-egt unb brauft, bann mirb ba§ ©emitter burd) jcne ©efpenfter nur 
nod) furd)terUd)er^ we play with predictions, forebodings and 
dreams, and make, by this, common life important. But when 
life becomes important, when all around is agitated and ha- 
rassing, then the tempest becomes so much the more fearful 
by those ghosts. — Gothe. 

§ 91. Every sentence is either Principal or Subordinate. 

§ 92. PRINCIPAL SENTENCE. 

The sentence is called Principal in opposition to the Subor- 
dinate Sentence. The thought or judgment expressed by a 
Principal Sentence is independent and complete in itself. 

Principal Sentences are either affirmative, interrogative, 



SUBORDINATE SENTENCE. 91 

optative or imperative, e. g. $>etlen bebeuten Shranen/ pearls 
(in dreams) signify tears. — Lessing. .ftam cr? did he come? 
2)er. £immel ftebe ung bei ! heaven support us 1 ©etb fleifig; be 
industrious. 

A r o£e 1. — Two or more simple sentences of equal grammatical power 
placed near each other, or joined together by co-ordinative conjunctions, 
are called co-ordinate sentences: e.g. (Sg gtebt nod) Sftiejeil/ bod) feine 
3Uttcr gicbt eg mebr/ there are yet giants, but no longer knights. — Schiller. 
3d) ftreue $3erten aug, unb Sftiemanb ad)Ut brauf 5 balb flreu' id) feine 
mehr, bann left ibr btefe auf/ I scatter pearls, and no one heeds it; I 
shall soon scatter no more, and then you will pick up these. — Ruckert. 
(Sg roar $D?onbfd)etn, bit SBSolfen jagten fid) unrufytg om #immel/ bie 
fd)ir>arjen gelfcn ftarrten in bee ungnriffen gerne, bie SBcllen fdjlugen 
an bag [title Ufet/ it was moonlight,. the clouds were chasing each other 
restlessly through the sky, the black rocks stared in the uncertain distance, 
the waves were beating the silent shore. — Steffens. 

Note 2. — If two or more co-ordinate sentences have in common either 
the subject, the predicate, the copula, or some inferior part, they may be 
contracted into one, e. g. the two sentences, @ott ijt aUmachttQ/ and 
@0tt ijl ert>l0/ having both the same subject and copula, are contracted 
into ©ott ifb atlm&djtUJ unb ett)ig/ God is almighty and eternal. Also 
the two sentences, @6the ift ein Sifter/ and ©filler ift ein Quhtett 
having both the same predicate and copula, are contracted into: @6the 
unb <Sd)il(er ftnb ©id)ter, Gothe and Schiller are poets. 

§ 93. SUBORDINATE SENTENCE. 

The sentence is called subordinate, or accessory, when it is 
dependent upon another sentence, without which its sense is 
not complete. The subordinate sentence does not, in reality, 
express a judgment of the speaker, but merely a notion to be' 
received into the principal sentence ; this notion, however, 
takes the form of a sentence, e. g. @r lag/ a(g id) tarn, he was 
reading when I came,=bei metner 2Cn!unft lag w, he was reading 
at my arrival. 

Both sentences together, the Principal and the Subordinate, 
forming, as it were, but one whole, constitute a Compound 
Sentence. 

The subordinate sentence is joined to the principal through 
the medium of subordinative conjunctions, which express at the 



92 SUBORDINATE SENTENCE. 

same time the relations which both sentences bear to each 
other, e. g. 3d) farm [robitd) fdjciben/ ' ba metne 2Cugen btefen Sag 
gefeben/ I can joyfully depart, since my eyes have seen this day. 
— Schiller. JDic groften ©djwierfgfetten Xtegen ba/ wo Wtr fte nid)t 
fudjen/ the greatest difficulties lie just where we do not seek 
them. — Gbthe. £)aS eben tft ber gtudt) ber bofen £t)at/ bap fte forts 
§eugenb S36feS mufj geb&ren/ this is the curse of an evil deed, that 
it continually must produce evil. — Schiller. 

Subordinate and principal sentences are also connected with 
each other by relative pronouns, e.g. SKtmm e§ fur etnen Sraum/ 
tt>as> btr begegnet iff/ consider what happened to thee as a dream. 
— Lessing. Wlan fctgt [ebr wet[e unb mit Sletyt; ber, wetd)er fetrt 
©lire! madjen will, mup frirbe aufftebn, it is said very wisely and 
with great justice : he who wishes to make his fortune must 
rise early. — Klinger. 3d) fterbe fur bie gretbett, fur tie id) lebte 
unb fod)t, I die for liberty, for which I lived and fought. — G'uthe. 

Subordinate Sentences are divided into Substantive, Adverbial, 
and Adjective Sentences, as : (Sr fjat mtr enable, was ftd) ereignete 
(i. e., ba$ (Sretgnttj)/ he has told me what happened (i. e., the 
event). @r gletdjt etnem S3aume/ wetd)er fetne grudjte tragt (i. e., 
etnem unfrudjtbaren 33aume), he resembles a tree that bears no 
fruit. £)te golbenen sktten, warm fte iematS aufjer ben Sbzen ber 
£>td)tet ertfttrt ijaben/ ftnb l&ngft bai)tn/ the golden age, if ever it 
has existed beyond the ideas of the poets, is long since gone. 
— Wieland. 

Note 1. — Subordinate sentences of equal power are sometimes co-ordi- 
nate to each other, e. g. bem (Sinselnen bleibe bie greibett ftd) mit bem 
ju befd)dfttgeri/ wag tl)n anjietyr, tva$ t&m greube madjt, tva$ tbm nfifcltd) 
b&udjtj aber ba$ etgentlidje ©tubium ber 2fflenfd)beit ift ber Sttenfd)/ 
let every individual have the liberty to occupy himself with that which 
attracts him, which gives him pleasure, which seems to him useful ; 
but the real study of mankind is man. — Gothe. 

Note 2. — Sometimes a subordinate sentence may be the principal of 
another subordinate sentence, e. g. 2Cber Wte jeber, ber eine Uebtlfyat 
begangen, furcbten mujj, bafj, ungeadjtet alleS 2(bwebren$/ fte bennod) 
an§ Std)t lommen werbe $ fo muf berjentge erwarren, ber in'S ©et)eim 
ba$ @ute getban, baf? aud) MefeS wiber [etnen SBillen an ben Sag fomme, 
but as every one who has committed an evil deed, must fear that, notwith- 



ELLIPTIC SENTENCE. 93 

standing all precautions, it will still come to light ; so must he expect, 
who has done good in secret, that this also shall come to light against 
his will. — Gothe. 

§ 94. Subordinate Sentences Abbreviated. 

Subordinate sentences are frequently abbreviated by taking 
the forms : — 

1 . Of an Infinitive, as : SBtc fierbeti/ urn ju teben, we die in 
order to live.— Holderlin. Sod) fd)ten eS ifym rdtfcttd), erjt etne 
SBetle ju gaubertv still it seemed to him advisable, first to delay 
a little. — Gothe. 

2. Of a Present Participle, as: £>er 9totf) gefyord)enb (inbem id) 
ber Sftoth gehorcfie) tret, id) fceraug gu eud)/ obeying necessity I 
appear here before you. — Schiller. 

3. Of a Past Participle, as : (Sine buft're 9tad)t umgab mid), 
con fettfamer. 23eteud)tung fd)rcad) er^ellt (roeidje con feltfamet S3e= 
leud)tung fd)tt>ad) erbellt roar)/ a gloomy night surrounded me, 
faintly lighted by a strange illumination. — Schiller. 

Note. — A principal and a subordinate sentence are often in a peculiar 
manner contracted into one, if the relation between the two sentences is 
expressed by a pronoun relative in the nominative or accusative case. 
The principal sentence itself remains entirely unaltered , but the relative 
pronoun and the auxiliary verbs, if any, of the subordinate sentence are 
suppressed, and the verb put into the participle, making it agree, like an 
adjective, with the noun represented by the relative pronoun, e. g. £)et 
berufymte £unftler aug fRom, rceld)er k|te $3od)e in unferer ©tabt 
anfam/ ttrirb un§ morgen rcteber oerlaffen/ the celebrated artist from 
Rome, who arrived last week in our town, will leave us again to-morrow. 
These two sentences contracted into one are: £5erIe§te3Bod}e in unferev 
©tabt angefommene beruhmte Mnftter auS 3?om nrirb ung morgen nrieber 
Derlaffen. This mode of contracting sentences is of recent origin, and 
not generally made use of by our best writers. 

§ 95. Elliptic Sentence. 

Our thoughts following in rapid succession, it is natural that 
we should try to express them in as brief a manner as possible. 
To effect this, we frequently omit one or several parts in a 
sentence, without prejudice, however, to the clearness of 



94 THE PERIOD. 

expression, e. g. ©uten Sittorgen, good morning; instead of: 
id) rounfdje Sfynen etnen guten SERorgen, I wish you a good morn- 
ing. SSSeg! SSoran ! gururil instead of: d5etjet weQivovarir gurucr ! 
*^att/ ©gmont ! ©etnen £>egen I Stop, Egmont ! thy sword ! 
— Gbthe. 

Note. — In the German language the elliptic use of the past participle 
is peculiar, e. g. 2fufgefd)aut/ look up I instead of: e$ roerbe aufgefdjcwt. 
^CuSgettun^en/ empty your glasses ! 

§ 96. The Period. 

A number of sentences of the same, or of different kinds, 
concurring by their connexion in the formation of one whole, 
constitutes the Period ; and a just, clear, and well-proportioned 
disposition of sentences and periods, in a rythmical as well 
as logical point of view, forms the foundation of a good 
style. 

Each period consists of two principal parts ; but each prin- 
cipal part may again contain within itself several sentences, 
which are then called members of the period, e. g. SGSer ntd)tg 
fyat, ber fann ntcfcts geben, he who has nothing can give nothing. 
— Lessing. S&er nte fetn 33rob mit Stjrdnen af / rcer me tie fum* 
merooUen 9Ud)te auf fetnem SSette rceinenb fa|*, ber lennt eud) md)t, tt>r 
i)tmmlifd)en SK&dfote/ he who never ate his bread in tears, he who 
never sat weeping on his bed, by night, full of grief, knows you 
not, ye heavenly powers. — Gbthe. Stebe tft ercig etn ©corners/ ent= 
weber etn fufec ober- etn bitterer/ tmmer etne 9latyt f roortn ^tn ©tern 
aufgeht, ofyne bafi etner fytnter unferm S^ucfen untertaud)t. g^unfc 5 
fdjaft ijl etn Sag, wo ntdfots untergeht, al§ etnmat bte (Sonne j unb 
bann tft's fdjroarg, unb ber Seufel erfdjctnt, love is a perpetual pain, 
a sweet or a bitter one ; it is ever a night, in which no star 
rises, without one setting behind us. Friendship is a day, where 
nothing sets, except once the sun ; and then it is dark, and 
forth comes the devil. — Jean Paul. SSSer. ber £)td)trunjt ©timme 
ntdjt uerntmmt, tft etn 23ctrbar/ er fet aud) roer er fei, he who listens 
not to the voice of poetry is a barbarian, be he who he may. 
■ — Gbthe. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 95 

§ 97. CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 
I. Principal Sentence. 

1. The position of the different parts of the sentence either 
conforms to the order in which the understanding arranges its 
notions, which is the Natural Order of Construction ; or, 

2. Deviates from the usual progress of the operations of 
our mind, and becomes the Inverted Order of Construction. 

% 98. In the Natural Order of Construction the subject 
always begins, the eopula follows, and the predicate terminates 
the sentence, as : tic $lad)t tft bunM/ the night is dark. 

In the simple tenses of the verb, where the copula merges in 
the predicate, the latter naturally takes the place of the copula, 
as : ber Conner rotft/ the thunder is rolling. 

If the verb be compounded with a separable particle, it is 
put into the place of the copula, and the separable particle into 
that of the predicate: e. g. tie Sonne get)t auf> the sun rises. 

If the principal members of the sentence be enlarged by 
adverbs and objective cases, these take their places after the 
copula, and if there be none, after the Predicate: e.g. bct§ 
Mbcfcen $at t;cute feinera SSruber einen (Straufj geftracfct, the girl has 
brought to-day a .nosegay to her brother. 25a§ ?Qldbd)en fcrad)te 
fetnem S3rubet einen ©trauj?. @r tft btefen SCRorgen urn funf XXi)v 
aufgeftanben, he rose this morning at five o'clock. (Sr ftanb 
btefen Sttorgen urn funf Uftr auf. 

Note 1. — The dative (secondary object) precedes the accusative (pri- 
mary object), if both be expressed by substantives, and unconnected 
with prepositions. 

Note 2. — Attributive adjectives are placed before their substantives, 
and attributive substantives (i. e. genitives, or attributive cases connected 
with prepositions), are put immediately after the substantives on which 
they depend: e.g. ber gute SSruber btefeS «£>errn l]ai geftern meiner 
jungften Sd)tt)e|tet einen SKtng con ©olbe gefchttft, the good brother of 
this gentleman sent yesterday a ring of gold to my youngest sister. £)te 
entjtellenben guge beS tiefen ©ramcS waren cms threm 2Cntlt£e v>er^ 
fd)rt?unben/ the disfiguring features of deep sorrow had vanished from her 
countenance.— Stefens. (Setn ^reunb au$ ^artS brachte biefen SKorgen 



96 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

tie Sftad)Ud)t son t&rem SofcC $UrM, his friend from Paris brought back 
this morning the news of her death. 

§ 99. In the Inverted Order of construction, the copula, or 
if there be none, the predicate, precedes the subject : e. g. fjeute 
ift ba§ SSetter fdjon/ to day the weather is fine, ©eftern fdjrieb er, 
he wrote yesterday. 

Note. — Sometimes the predicate is placed before the copula : e. g. (Smffc 
tjr ba§ %tUn f better ift tie $ltnft/ life is serious, art gay.— Schiller. £>ie 
£unjt i|t lan^/ un& ^h ift unfer Ceben, art is long, and our life is short. 
—Gothe. ©rau, tbeurer greunb/ ift alle Sbeorie, all theory, my dear 
friend, is grey. — Gothe. 

Inversion takes place : — 

1. In those sentences in which the pronoun " e§ " is placed 
at the head of the sentence, in order to give more force to the 
subject : e. g. @s tt)onlen fd)on ganje SKegimenrer, whole regiments 
are already wavering. — Schiller. 

2. In all interrogative, imperative, and optative sentences : 
e. g. 2£ar mem greunb ta ? was my friend there? ©agen ©Ce miii 
tell me. 2B5re id) bod) an fetner ©telle ! might I be in his place ! 

8. In all those conditional sentences in which the conjunc- 
tions rcenn if, or baj? that, are left out : e. g. 3ft bet Sfflenfd) jur 
Sugenb berufen, fo ift eine Unfterblid)f.ett, instead of, roenn ber SWenfd) 
gur Sugenb berufen ifr &c, if man be destined for virtue, there is 
an immortality. SQSdre bte £offnung ntdjt, fo ware fcin ©treben auf 
(grben/ if there was no hope, there would be no exertion on 
earth. 

4, In those principal sentences which are preceded by their 
subordinate sentences : e. g. 3Ct§ id) gurucf tam f fanb id) tt)n fehr 
tjeitei'/ when I came back, I found him very cheerful. 

5. In all sentences beginning with adverbs, and co-ordinative 
conjunctions, as : $eute ttrirb metne ©djroefter lommen/ to-day my 
sister will come, ©leicfyuohl \)<xt er eg gethan, still he has done it. 

Note. — No inversion, however, takes place in sentences beginning with 
unb, aber, allein, fonbern, namlid), benn, entroeber/ ober : 2Cber er t&at eg 
nicht, but he did it not. £)enn bet SSrief lam JU fpdt, for the letter 
came too late. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 97 

6. In all sentences which begin with an objective case : e.g. 
Sen SSrief babe id) feinem SSvuber gefd)i<£t/ or, fetnem SSruber \)0&t id) 
ben SHrfef gefdjitft/ I have sent the letter to his brother. ♦ SSon 
Hamburg reiften tt>tr nad) SSerltiv from Hamburg we travelled to 
Berlin. 

7. Sentences, such as: fagt et, he said; antrcortete et/ he 
answered; fragte ct/ he asked, &c, which are introduced into 
the narrative, are always inverted. 

§ 100. — II. Subordinate Sentence. 

The order of construction in subordinate sentences remains 
always the same. The subject preceded by the subordinative 
conjunction begins, the predicate follows, and the copula, if 
there be one, terminates the sentence : e. g. (Sr fdjrtcb nid)t, roe it 
cr ttanl wat/ he did not write because he was ill. (gr tvav fd)on 
tobt/ ate wit anlamerit he was already dead when we arrived. 

If the subordinate sentence be enlarged with objective cases, 
adverbs, &c, these must be placed between the subject and the 
predicate : e. g. 3d) fyoffe, ba$ wit etn yaat ©tunben binbuud) unge= 
jtort fetn werben/ I hope, that we shall be undisturbed for a few 
hours. (Sr tad)te/ ate id) meine SJcrrounberung fiber etne fo gefdfytttdje 
S^eife etneS iungen Stafcben obne olte Seglettung aufjerte, he laughed 
when I expressed my astonishment at so dangerous a journey 
by a young man without any escort. — Steffens. 3d) t>ertt>unfd)e 
btc ©IficfUdjen/ benen ber Ungtuc?tid)e nut &um ©pectalel bienen foil, I 
curse the happy to whom the unhappy only serves as a sight. — 
Gbthe. (Sin auSgefprod)ene6 28ort ift furcbterttd), rcenn eg ba$ auf 
etnmal ausfprid)t, waZ ba$ ^5er§ tange fid) ertaubt fyat, a word pro- 
nounced is dreadful, if it speaks out at once that which the 
heart has long pondered over. — Gothe. 

Note. — In abbreviated subordinate sentences the predicate still main- 
tains its position at the end of the sentence: e.g. SSon ©rftaunen er tf 
gtiffen/ trat er Yiafyeti seized with astonishment, he stepped nearer. 

§ 101. The arrangement of words in German prose follows 
almost invariably the rules just explained. In poetry, the same 

K 



98 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

laws are generally applicable ; but a great many more in- 
versions are naturally allowed than can be admitted in prose. 
The genitive, for instance, almost always precedes its substan- 
tive, the article before which is then dropped : e. g. £)eg 9Jtenfd)en 
(Seele gletcfyet tern Staffer, the soul of man resembles water. — 
Goihe. 2Bog ift ber @rbe ©tucf?— @tn ©fatten! SBog ift ber 
(Srbe Sftuhm ? — (Sin Sraum ! What is earthly happiness ? — A 
shadow ! What is earthly glory ? — A dream ! — Grillparzer. 
£)eg SGSofferg unb beg geuers £roft, the power of water and of fire. 

Note. — This inversion, by putting the genitive before the substantive, 
so frequent in verse, is often found also in prose. 

Whenever, in compound sentences and periods, subordinate 
or other sentences are introduced between parts of the principal, 
the words, though interrupted, must still follow in the pre- 
scribed order : e. g. £)te 9ttenfcr;en, bte bog ganje Safer roeltlid) jtnb/ 
bilben fid) ctn, fie mfif fen gur 3ett ber 9lotb geiftlid) fetn, those people 
who are worldly throughout the whole year, imagine that they 
must be spiritual in times of distress. — Goihe. <2o war ber 
©cfcritt/ ten i^, unfd)tufig fcfrrconfenb, cermetben unb nid)t cermeiben 
rooUte, gethan, thus was the step taken which I, irresolute and 
hesitating, wished to avoid, and not to avoid. — Steffens. Sftidjt 
aUetn bag/ roag mit ung geboren ift/ fonbern oud) bo£, rcag nrir erroer&en 
!6nnen/ Qeb6rt ung an, unb tt)ir finb eg/ not only that which is born 
with us, but that also which we can obtain, belongs to us, and 
becomes part of ourselves. — G'dthe. 

§ 102. Remarks on the Position of the Pronouns, 
Adverbs, and Conjunctions. 

1. Pronouns, in general, are placed before all particles in 
the sentence : e. g. Soften (Sie mid) bog ntd)t jroei 9Jtal fcoren, do not 
let me hear that twice. 

Of the pronouns, the personal pronoun is put before the 
demonstrative, and the pronoun eg before every other pronoun : 
e. g. (Sr l;ot mtr bog erjahlt, he told me that, (Sr hot eg mtr oer* 



CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 99 

fprodfteit/ he promised it to me. Sfor &n fagt'6 Sfynen ntdjt, your 
heart will not tell it to you. 

The reflective pronoun precedes every other pronoun, even 
the pronoun eg : e. g. (Sr loft ft'ch'g gefatten, he suffers it. 

2. Adverbs are placed immediately before the adjectives or 
adverbs which they determine : e. g. £5er S3aum ijl fehr bod)/ the 
tree is very high, (Sr befinbet ftd) gan§ roobl/ he is quite well. 

Note. — The word genttg enough, is an exception, being always put after 
the adjective or adverb which it determines : e. g. (gr- tjt alt genug/ he is 
old enough. 

An adverb, being joined to a verb, is placed after the copula, 
and if there be none, after the predicate in principal sentences, 
and following the natural order of construction, as : @r bat fyeute 
nur etne ©tunbe gefcfylafen/ he has slept only one hour to-day. 
@r fdjlief beute nur etne ©tunbe/ he slept only one hour to-day. 
In subordinate sentences, however, the adverb precedes both 
the copula and the predicate : e. g. 3dj weifl/ baf er beute gelom? 
men ift/ I know that he has come to day. SKein greunb/ roetd)er 
geftern anlangte* my friend who arrived yesterday. 

Note 1. — The position of the negative ntd)t not, requires particular 
attention. If it relate to the predicate of the sentence, it takes the same 
position as all other adverbs joined to a verb : e. g. (St ift nid)t gel ommett/ 
he is not come. (Sr fommt ntcht/ he does not come. If there are several 
adverbs relating to the predicate, the particle nicbt must be put after all 
the other adverbs: e.g. ©r rotrb fieute gettnfj md)t fommen/ he will cer- 
tainly not come to-day. (Sr lommt bi^wciUn gang unb gar nid)t/ some- 
times he does not come at all. 

Note 2. — If, however, the adverb ntd)t does not relate to the predicate 
itself, but to a single word of the sentence, it is always placed immediately 
before such single word, as : (Sr mobnt nid)t hter, fonbcrn bovt, he does 
not live here, but there. (Sr Ueft md)t oft/ he does not read often. 9itd)t 
alle bcnlen tt>ie bU/ not all think like you (i. e. only some of them think 
like you). 2(lle benfen nid)t tote btt/ would mean that they all think 
otherwise. 

2. The sub-ordinative conjunctions stand always at the 
head of the subordinate sentence: e. g. 2Cl§ bie (Sonne aufgteng/ 
when the sun rose. Sometimes they are preceded by co- 



100 AGREEMENT OF WORDS. 

ordinative conjunctions, as : 2fber alS tie (Sonne aufgfeng, but 
when the sun rose. 

The co-ordinative conjunctions, unb, ober, attein, fonbern, benn, 
are always put at the beginning of the sentence, as : £)enn nrir 
fomen gu fpdt, for we came too late. The conjunctions aber and 
ndmltd), may stand at the beginning or in the middle of the 
sentence : e. g. 2Cber nrir famen em roenig ju frith, or, wit famen 
aber etn roentg ju fruf), but we came a little too early. 

All the other co-ordinative conjunctions are arranged, with 
respect to their position, like the same conjunctions in English ; 
and if they begin principal sentences, they invert the order of 
construction, like the adverbs. 

§ 103. AGREEMENT OF WORDS. 

1. The substantive is the word to which adjectives, articles, 
and pronouns, accompanying it, must conform in gender, num- 
ber, and case : e. g. £5er gute SKann, the good man. SJon jenen 
fonberbaren Ceuten, of those strange people, &c. 

2. The noun in apposition must also stand in the same 
case, and, if possible, in the same gender and number with the 
noun which it explains : e. g. <Sd)tUer, ber grope £)id)ter, Schiller, 
the great poet. SSon ben S^omern, etnem topfern SSolfe, of the 
Romans, a brave people. 2>te (Strahten ber (Sonne, ber £6nigtnn 
beg SageS, oergulbeten bie 23erge, the rays of the sun, the queen of 
day, gilded the mountains. 

3. After words, the natural gender of which does not agree 
with that which grammar assigns to them, pronouns and adjec- 
tives must agree with the grammatical gender of such words : 
e. g. £>a6 9Xabd)en, roelcfreS ©ie feben, the girl whom you see. 
©a§ grauensimmer, ba$ bort get)!, the lady that walks yonder. 

Note. — This rule, however, is not always observed even by our best 
authors. 

4. The verb must agree with the substantive in number and 
person : e. g. (5r lommt, he comes. 2)ie SS6get fliegen, the birds 
fly. 



AGREEMENT OF WORDS. 101 

Note 1. — After collective nouns, used in the singular, the verb follows 
in the same number, and not in the plural, as sometimes in English. 

Note 2. — In phrases like the following: "the German and English 
languages," "the masculine and feminine genders," "the Black and 
Mediterranean seas," &c., the substantive must be used in the singular, 
and not in the plural, as in English, as : SDte £)eutfd)e unb (5ngltfd)e 
@prad)e. £>aS fdjroarje unb mitteUant>tfd)e SKeer/ &c, 

5. The verb is put in the plural when it is connected with 
several substantives in the singular, as : £tmmel unb (Srbe wrs 
gefoett/ heaven and earth pass away. This rule, however, 
is frequently set aside, especially in poetry : e. g. SSerratft unb 
2Cr<jtt)ohn Iau(d)t in alien ©cfen, treachery and suspicion lurk in 
every corner. — Schiller. <Sinftd)t/ Dtbnunoy 3ud)t/ SSefefcl/ ba$ ifi 
metne ©ad)e/ sagacity, order, discipline, command, these are my 
business. — G'othe. Set ©trom/ ba$ SCReer/ ha§ ©atj gefy&rt btm 
&5mg/ the stream, the sea, the salt belong to the king. — 
Schiller. Exceptions to this rule are also the formulas of 
arithmetic : jwet SKal groet madjt wc, twice two make four, gunf 
SDtol $ehn ijl ffinfetg/ five times ten are fifty, &c. 

iVote.— Servants, in speaking of their superiors, will use the verb in 
the plural, as : 2)er £err SDttntftet ftnb md)t ju £aufe/ the minister is not 
at home. 

6. The neuter demonstrative pronouns, wa$, i>a§, bteS/ and 
also e§) are frequently referred to masculine and feminine 
nouns : e. g. 2)a6 i|t tie grau/ son ber id) fprad> that is the woman 
of whom I spoke. @6 ift eine fd)6ne Same/ she is a handsome 
lady. 

After the same pronouns, relating to substantives in the 
plural, the verb must also be used in the plural number, as : 
ba$ ftnb ungtucftid)e Seute/ those are unfortunate people. 

7. If the verb relate to several subjects in different persons, 
the first person is preferred to the second, and the second to 
the third : e. g. 33) unb bu fiaben ge[d)riet>en/ I and thou (we) have 
written. £)u unb er fiabet eS getfoan/ thou and he (you) have 
done it. £)et ba unb id) ttrir. ftnb auS ©get/ that person and myself 
Are from Eger. — Schiller. 2Cud) wit, ify unb betn Skater, \atyn 

k 3 



102 GOVERNMENT OF WORDS. 

fd)6ne Sctgo both thy father and myself have seen some joyful 
days. 

§ 104. GOVERNMENT OF WORDS. 

When in the grammatical connexion of speech the form of 
one word is dependent on another, we say, it is governed by 
such a word : e. g. (gr. fd)ldgt ben $nafcn, he beats the boy. 
Here the verb fdjlatjen governs the accusative case. 

In substantives, the cases must be considered, and in verbs 
the forms of tense and mood. 

§ 105. OF THE CASES. 

I. The Nominative. 

1. The subject of the sentence is put always into the nomi- 
native case : e. g. £>er SSaum faUt, the tree falls. Gsr ftngt/ he 
sings. 

2. With some verbs indicating merely a state or condition, 
and representing at the same time the copula of the sentence, 
as : fein/ tt>erben, fcetfen (to be called), bkiUn and fdjemert/ the 
predicate as well as the subject must be in the nominative case, 
as : dt \§tix\t em gutcr Stafdj, he seems a good man. SBer fid) 
nidjt fetbft beftebtt, Utibt tmmer em £ned)t, he who does not com- 
mand himself remains always a slave. — Gothe. 3)ie (Sfye ift ber 
2Cnfcmg unb ber ©tpfel allet' £uUur/ matrimony is the base and 
the summit of all culture. — Gothe. 

Note 1 . — The German language has the remarkable peculiarity of put- 
ting the name of the whole after the name of the part in the nominative, 
e. g. (Sine glafdje 2Mri/ a bottle of wine. SQSollen ©ie eine Saffe Sfcee ? 
will you have a cup of tea ? SSrirtg mir einen &VUg SBetrt/ bring me a 
jug of wine.— Gothe. (Sine SDtertge Scute/ a crowd of people. SOlit einem 
<Stutf SSvot/ with a piece of bread. S3on etnem $Pfimb $utf Mr of a pound 
of sugar. If, however, the name of the whole has an adjective, it is 
usually put into the genitive case, e. g- (Sin ©log cwten SBetneg, a glass 
of good wine. 3tt>et $>funb fttfchen SSroteS/ two pounds of fresh bread. 

Note 2. — The appellations of measure and number are not inflected, but 
the name of the whole must receive its proper termination, e. g. %Rit 
tret tyaax ©chufjen, with three pair of shoes. SSon $roet £)u§enb (Siern, 
of two dozens of eggs. 



THE CASES. 



103 



§ 106 II. The Genitive. 

1. The genitive is used in the question "whose?" e. g. 
£5ctS «£>au§ metneS greunbel/ the house of my friend. It is 
further employed with substantives indicating a part of the 
whole, or a manner, weight, &c. e. g. £)a$ gelt be§ SbiereS, the 
hide of the animal, (gine Sttafj beS bejten SHereS/ a pint of the 
best beer. 

2. Nouns, indicating time or place, are frequently put into 
the genitive case, e. g. : @r fam beS SCftorgenS/ he came in the 
morning. £)e§ S0Uttag3/ at noon ; t»e§ 2Cbenb§/ in the evening ; 
beS Sageg/ during the day; be§ SafyveS/ in the year, &c. 

3. The genitive is connected with many adjectives, in order 
to complete the notion expressed by them, e. g. Set) bin befjen 
genrif / I am certain of it. £eute/ bie etne gtofje 5Sot)(tt)at gtetd) ofyne 
SSebenlen annefymen fonnen, ftnb bee SBobltbat fetten ttmrbtg/ people 
who can accept immediately and without consideration a great 
benefit, are rarely worthy of it. — Lessing. The following adjec- 
tives belong to them : — 



beburfttg 


Wg 


tjabfjaft 


notf) 


cerbdefytig 


befHffen 


m 


funbtg 


quite 


oerlujttg 


befugt 


Sett>at)i: 


Kebig 


fait 


eott 


ben6t£)tgt 


gerodrttg 


tod 


ftfjutbtg 


roertb 


beroupt 


gettnjj 


macfytig 


tbeUfjaft 


wurbtg 


etngeben? 


gercohnt 


mube 


uberbrufng. 





Note 1. — All derivative adjectives formed with IM/ of the above adjec- 
tives, as tmbewujjt/ urmntrbtg/&c, govern likewise the genitive. 

Note 2. — SSoll is connected sometimes also with the nominative, or 
with the preposition " tton." SBei'tt) is connected with the genitive only 
in the signification of worthy, otherwise it governs the accusative. @ett)abT 
and gett)0hnt are also used in the accusative, gdhtg and befugt are some- 
times connected with the preposition " §u." 

4. The genitive is required after the following verbs, some 
of which are also connected with the accusative or with prepo- 
sitions : ac&ten (accusative), beburfen (accusative), braudjert 
(accusative), gebenlen (an)/ entbehren (accusative), entroobnen 
(oon)/ ermangetti/ ertt>dt)nen (accusative), geniefien (accusative), 



104 THE CASES. 

gefd)tt>eigen/ barren (auf), tadjen (fiber)/ fdjonen (accusative), sergejfen 
(accusative), ttalten/ nxtrten (in the signification of "to tafte 
care"). SKMt barren betneS SBSinfeg, we wait for your wink. — 
Schiller. <SS fd)ont ber £rteg aud) md)t bee £inbteing in ber SSMege, 
war does not even spare the infant in the cradle. — Schiller. 

5. The following verbs require the genitive of the thing, and 
the accusative of the person: anftagen, belefyuen, berauben/ U* 
f djutbtgen/ begtd)ttgen/ entlabem enttajtem entlaffen, enttebigen/ entfe^en^ 
ftbetfufyren, serrcetfcn (beg 2anbe§), nwrbigeri/ jeUien. SGSeld) anbrer 
<Sunbe flagt baS ^erj £)td) an ? of what other sin does your heart 
accuse you ? — Schiller. 

6. Many verbs of the reflective form require the genitive, 
as : 2)u rufymft Sid) Seines ftd)ern SSticfS, thou boastest of thy 
sure look.— Schiller. Gst tt>itb ftd) Seiner erbarmen, he will have 
pity on you. — Guthe. 

7. In certain phrases the genitive is connected with the verbs 
gefyen/ tebeti/ fterben : e. g. @r lebt ber 4?offnung/ he lives in the hope. 
(Sr fforb etneS furcfyterttdjen SobeS, he died a dreadful death, 

8. The genitive is frequently used after exclamations, e. g. : 
£> I beg £f)oren ! Oh I the fool. £att, &ett ! ober bu &tft be$ 
SobeS ! Stop, fellow ! or thou diest. 

§ 107. The Dative. 

1. The dative is used in the question to whom? or to what? 
e. g. ©teb mo*/ give me. 

2. The following adjectives place the person or thing, com- 
pleting their notion, in the dative: abgenetgt/ abfyolb, abttunnig, 
dfynUd)/ angeboren, angering/ angelegen/ angemeffen/ angenefym, dvger? 
\i<^, bebenflid)/ begretfltd), 6ef)idflid), bcttmft/ banfbar, btentid), etgen/ 
etgentt)umlid)/ entbefyrltd;, ergeben, erfreultd), ern>unfd)t/ getyotfam, 
getdufig, gelegen, gemdf/ gemetn/ genetgt, getreu/ gcn>ad)fen/ gm>ogen, 
gteid)/ gtetd)guUtg/ gunjttg tjeilfam/ fyolb, t&jtig, \kh, nbtfjtg, notfjroenbtg, 
red)t, fd)dbltd)/ fd)d£bar, fdjmetd)elf)aft, fcfyrecftid), fdjulbtg, fcfynrinbeltg/ 
treu, uUh uberfXuffig/ ubrig, ubertegen/ unau§jtef)lid), unertrdglid), 
unewartet, unsertyofft/ t>eranttt>crtlia> wrbinblicb, wrbunben, serbddjttg/ 



THE CASES. 105 

tterberMd), ver^oft/ wrwanbt/ t?orti>etit)aft, werty/ nribetiid)/ nribrtg, 
ttrillfommen/ »o§l/ augetfoan/ jutragtid), Ex. : ©in Sag ijt iurf)t bem 
anbetn gtetd)/ one day is not like the other. — Gothe. Sffiet) bem/ 
bcr ju ber SKktyrtyett gefyt burd) (Sdjulb/ fie wtrb ifym mmmermctyr 
etfreulitf) feiri/ woe to him, who arrives at truth through guilt, 
it will nevermore rejoice him. — Schiller, 

3. The dative is used after transitive verbs when they have, 
beside the object in the accusative, a subordinate object 
(person or thing) to which the action refers: e. g. 3d) foufe 
mir eirt $a\i§, I buy a house for myself. SBfirb id) fonjl £>tr eg 
ratfjen? would I otherwise advise it to thee? — Gothe. 

4. After most of the intransitive verbs the person must 
stand in the dative : e. g. "Kile roeicfyen tfym ouS/ all go out of his 
way. .KommV fotge mtr, unb tfyeite/ roaS id) rjabe/ come, follow me, 
and share what I have.— -Gothe. 

5. The dative is required after all intransitive verbs com- 
pounded with ob/ an/ auf/ bet/ ein/ entgegen/ rtad)/ unter/ ttdr/ ttuber/ 
and ju/ e. g. (gr gteng feinem greunbe entgegen, he went to meet 
his friend, 

6. The following reflective verbs require the dative of the 
person : fid) cmmafen/ fid) auSbebingen/ fid) einbtlben/ fid) getrauem 
fid) cornermen/ ftd) uorjMen: e. g. 3$ btlbe mir ein/ I fancy to 
myself. 

7. Impersonal verbs require the person in the dative, when 
their signification is purely intransitive : e. g. (§6 fd)aubert mix, 
I am shuddering. @g beliebt mtr/ it pleases me. (g$ fei)tt mix/ 
I want. @6 gludt ii)m/ he succeeds. @6 trdumte ifyr/ she 
dreamt, &c. 

8. It is to be remarked, that the superfluous datives miv f 
£ir/ Sfynert/ @ud)/ are often introduced in familiar conversation, 
when a wish, request, or command is expressed, in order to 
heighten the vivacity of speech : e. g. £)a§ waten Sfynert tt>ai)re 
£elben/ those were true heroes. £)aS war £)ir ein SSergnugen/ 
that was a pleasure (for you) ! 

9. The dative is sometimes used after an exclamation, e.g. : 
&U bem ^bnige/ hail to the king ! 



106 the cases. 

§ 108. The Accusative. 

1 . The accusative is used in the question whom ? or what ? 
and indicates, in transitive verbs, the object suffering, or being 
acted upon, whether that object be a person or a thing: e. g. 
(gr fd)lagt ben $unb/ he beats the dog. @r ffebt ben SBalb t>or 
ben SSdumen ntd)t/ he cannot see the wood for trees. Charlotte 
benu§te bie ©etegentjett baZ ©efyrad) mteber anjuxnupfen, metletcfct in 
ber Uebergeugung/ ba$ man einen S3orfa| ntdjt ftdjerer abjtumpfen lann/ 
al6 menn man tyn bfterS burd)fprid)t/ Charlotte made use of this 
opportunity to resume the conversation, perhaps in the con- 
viction, that a purpose could not be blunted more surely than 
by frequently discussing it. — Gbthe. 

Note. — The accusative, therefore, is used after all transitive verbs in the 
active voice: e- g. ©r trinft ben 2Setn/ he drinks the wine. (So mie bet 
SBeibraud) ba$ fieben einer £oble erfrifdjet/ fo crfrifdjet ba$ ®ebet bie 
^offnttngen be$ #etjen6/ as incense gives fresh life to the coal, so prayer 
refreshes the hopes of the heart — Gothe. 

2. The reflective verbs require the personal pronoun in the 
accusative, as: (Sr fcfi&mt fid}/ he is ashamed. 3§e freuet eud)/ 
you are rejoiced. Sftiemanb iffc mefyr ©ctase ats ber fid) fur frei 
$alt ofone eg gu fetn/ nobody is more a slave than he who con- 
siders himself free without being so. — Gbthe. 3d) mitt reben 
mie etn SSucfi, menn id) mid) oorberettet fyaU, unb mie ein Ztyx, menn 
id) bet guter Saune bin/ I will speak like a book, when I have 
prepared myself, and like a fool, when in a cheerful mood. 
— Gothe. 

3. The impersonal verbs with a transitive signification 
require also the accusative : e. g. SS frtevt mid)/ I am cold. 
66 fcfcmerjt mid)/ it pains me. 

Note. — The verb "geben," when it denotes existence, requires the 
accusative, and not the nominative, as: @$ gtebt einen ©Ott/ there is a 
God. 

4. Intransitive verbs are sometimes connected with an accu- 
sative of a like, or related signification, e. g. (5r fcHdft einen 
Jangen ©cfytaf/ he sleeps a long sleep. 



THE TENSES. 107 

5. The accusative is required when the action of the verb 
designates a direction in time or space ; therefore, in the ques- 
tions when? how long? how great? how high? how much? 
e. g. SStr arbeiteten rtur einen Sag/ we worked only one day. 
Qj§ lojtct einen Scaler/ it costs one dollar. 2ange Sage jianb 
mein ©d&iff befradjtet/ many days my ship stood freighted. — 
Gbthe. 

Note. — The accusative is used, naturally, also with adjectives denoting 
the extension of an object in time and space, as: btC?/ f)0d)/ mett/ breit/ 
XaxiQ, ttef, alt, retch/ groj?/ &c S)er SSad) tft bier einen gufl ttef/ the 
brook is here one foot deep. S5Mr ft'nb etnige Sage tang ba gemefen/ we 
have been there for several days. 

6. After the verbs nennen, beifen (to call), fdfjeXteri/ fd)tmpfen/ 
taufen/ lehren/ the person as well as the thing must be put in the 
accusative : e. g. (Sr btefj ibn einen barren/ he called him a fool. 
(Sr lehrt mid) tie £)eutfdje <Sprad;e/ he teaches me the German 
language. 

Note. — $ei|Jen/ when it signifies to command, requires the person in 
the dative, and the thing in the accusative ; if, however, instead of the 
thing, an infinitive be used, the person must be put in the accusative, 
e. g. (Sr htejj mid) gehen/ he commanded me to go. 



§ 109. THE FORMS OF TENSE IN VERBS. 

. The Present. 

1. The present tense is used when the action is represented 
as passing at the time in which it is related: e. g. 2of mid) 
roeinen/ an beinem £erjen betjse Shrdnen meinen/ SDu etnj'ger greunb. 
3d) babe Sftiemanb — Sftfemanb — auf btefer gro^en roeiten @rbe SKtemanb. 
(So weit bas Septet metne§ SSaterg reicbt/ fo treit tie ©djtffahrt unfre 
glaggen fenbet/ tft feine ©telle — fctne — fetne/ mo id) metner Shrdnen 
mid) enllaften barf/ ats btefe. £> bet Mem ! Sfoberid)/ ma§ bu unb 
id) bereinjt tm #immel boffen/ oerjage mid) con btefer ©telle nidjr, let 
me weep hot tears on thy breast, my only friend. I have no 
one — no one — upon this great wide earth — no one. As far 
as the sceptre of my father reaches, as far as commerce bears 



108 THE TENSES. 

our flags, there is no place — none— none, but this one, where 
I can pour out my tears. Oh by every thing, Roderick, 
which you and I hope for in heaven, drive me not away from 
this place. — Schiller. SDktne £ciben[d)aft mof)nt in ben ©rdbevn 
ber Sobten/ my affections dwell in the graves of the dead. — 
Schiller. 30ie SBSelt uor mir ttegt in einem feflen ©cfylafe, unb i)6rt unb 
rebet md)t/ the world before me lies in a sound sleep, and hears 
and speaks not. — Jean Paul. 

2. It is used when the speaker wishes to express, not indeed 
the time of an action, but merely the reality of it : e.g. 3?afd) 
tritt ber Sob ben SQlenfdjen an. (gg ift ifym feme grift gegeben, eg 
ftttrjt tyn mitten in bet SBatyn, eg jcetft ii)n fort com ooUen fiebem 
bereitet ober ntd)t, ju gefyen/ er mufi oor feinen SRifytex ftefyen/ sudden 
is the coming of death. In x the midst of our career we are 
cast down j in the fulness of life we are snatched away ; pre- 
pared or not prepared, we must stand before our judge. — 
Schiller, Stinbtt fatten nid)t, mag fie ceifpredjen 5 junge Seute fefyr 
fetteri/ unb menn fte 3Bort fatten/ fjatt eg tynen bie 2Belt x\id)t, children 
do not keep their promise ; young people very seldom ; and if 
they keep their word, the world does not keep it to them. — 
Gbthe. 2>ebe SGMffenfdfcctft ift ein abgeriffener ©tvatyl con ber (Sonne 
alleg SStjfeng unb ©ring/ each science is a ray detached from the 
sun of all knowledge and being. — Rahel. S5ie Ceiben ft'nb mie 
©emtttenrolfen, in ber gernc feijen fte fdjwarj aug/ ufcer ung !aum grau, 
sufferings are like tempest-clouds, in the distance they look 
black, above us scarcely grey. — Jean Paul. £)ie @d)mtevigfeiten 
road)fen/ je nafyet man bem ^tete fommt/ difficulties increase the 
nearer one comes to the goal. — G'dlhe. 

3. The present tense is sometimes employed instead of the 
imperfect, or future, if something past or future be represented 
in a lively manner, as if it were present and real: e. g. ©a ttrirb 
ein ICuflaufs ein $>od)en erfdjrecft unfer D§r$ mtr glauben bk 25es 
freter ju uevnefymen 5 bte #offnung minft ung/ &c, an uproar arises ; 
a knocking alarms our ears ; we fancy we hear our liberators; 
hope beckons to us, &c. — Schiller. 3d) reifc morgen frut) ab, 
I set out to-morrow morninsr. 



the tenses. 109 

§ 110. The Imperfect. 

The Imperfect or Preterite indicates a past action, in rela- 
tion to another action, either preceding, cotemporary, or sub- 
sequent. This tense denotes, at the same time, that the action 
in the past tense was not finished : e. g. Ittt cr etntrat, fdjrteb id), 
when he entered, I was writing. £)er ©ebanfe ftteg ttrie etnc fletne 
fffiolfe cor mir ctuf/ breitcte ftdr> nad) unb nad) au§, unb cerftnfterte meine 
gange @eele> the thought rose before me like a little cloud, spread 
itself by degrees, and darkened my whole soul. — Gothe. $e|r 
roar feine SSo^nung alS ba$ @rab, firm was no dwelling but the 
grave. — Schiller. (Seine £etben uermefyrten fid) 5 baZ ©efufyl beffen, 
n?a6 er gururlltefj war tym unertrSglid) 5 nod)mat§ bticfte er nad) tern 
Settler: £) bu SSeneibenSmertfyer ! rief er au$ / bu fannjt nod) am 
gejhtgen tttmofen gefyren, unb id) nid)t mefyr am geftrtgen ©lucfc/ his 
sufferings increased ; the sense of that which he left behind was 
insupportable to him ; once more he looked towards the beggar : 
Oh, enviable one ! he exclaimed, you can still feed upon yester- 
day's alms, and I no more upon yesterday's happiness. — Gothe. 
£)te d5otf)en fd)icften tfyre £naben lieber in fetne <Sd)ute/ bamtt fie Somen 
blieben/ the Goths sent not their boys to school, in order that 
they might remain lions. — Jean Paul. 

Note.— The imperfect is especially employed in a narrative style. 

§ 111. The Perfect. 

The perfect represents the action as past and finished at the 
time in which it is mentioned : e. g. 3d) fyabe ba$ 33ud) getefen, I 
have read the book. 3d) babe itjn fieut unb geffern nid)t gefefyem I 
have not seen him to-day or yesterday. — Schiller. 3d) fyore auf 
gu teberi/ aber id) tjabe gelebt, I cease to live, but I have lived. — 
Gothe. $3a3 baV \§ uerloren ! S0Seld)e ^perte marf id) fytn ! SSMd) 
©lucB beg #tmmel£ bab' id) roegge[d)leubert! what have Host ! what 
a pearl have I cast aside ! what a heavenly destiny have I flung 
away ! — Schiller. 

§ 112. The Pluperfect. 
The Pluperfect indicates a past action as having preceded 



110 THE TENSES. 

another action which is likewise past : e. g. Stlh) fyatte iaum 
fetnen Sftuctmatfdj angetretem aB ber £5mg fetn gager ju (Sdjrcebt 
plo^lid) auffyob unb gegen granffurt an ber £)ber anrutfte/ Tilly had 
scarcely begun his retreat, when the king suddenly raised his 
camp at Schwedt, and approached Frankfort on the Oder. — 
Schiller, SRad;bem wit ung etn ttem'g erfrifd}t fatten/ fe^ten ttrir 
unfeve SRetfe wetter fort/ after having refreshed ourselves a little, 
we continued on our journey. 

§ 113. Future Tense. 

The Future simply represents the action as yet to come : 
e. g. 3d) roerbe balb fdjretfcen, I shall soon write. 3d) fet)' wk 
atieg lommen nrirb. 2)et £onig son Ungarn with erfdjetnen/ unb eg 
ttrirb fid) wn felbft tterfiefyen/ ba$ ber -berjog ger;t/ I see how every 
thing will come. The king of Hungary will appear, and it 
will be understood from this, that the duke goes. — Schiller. 
SSte traurtge Sr&ume etne angenefjme ^ulunft bebeuten, fo rotrb eg nut 
bem Sraum beg £ebeng fein, roenn ev aug i{t/ as sad dreams denote a 
pleasant future, so it probably will be with the dream of life, 
when it is past. — Jean Paul. 

The future in German is also used sometimes when a pre- 
sent action or state is to be represented as probable, as : (5r 
ttrirb jefct %\x £au[e fetn/ he is probably at home now. 3d) fyabe 
tt)n nid)t gefefym er nrirb root nod) arbeitem I have not seen him, he 
is probably yet working. 3d) f)6re 3emanb fommen j eg nrirb ber 
SfBittf) fetn/ I hear some one coming, it may be the landlord. — 
Lessing. 

§ 114. Past Future Tense. 

The Past Future represents a future action as finished or 
past : e. g. 3d) werbe ben 23vief fogteid) gelefen fjaben/ 1 shall have 
read the letter directly. 

It is also used when a past action is to be represented as 
probable : e. g. £ev SSebtente nrirb bag 9Sud) wrtoren fyaUn, the 
servant has probably lost the book. 



THE MOODS. Ill 

§ 115. THE FORMS OF MOOD IN VERBS. 

The Indicative. 
The Indicative is the mood of certainty and of reality ; con- 
sequently, a judgment which the speaker asserts, is represented 
by the indicative mood, it matters not whether the subject of 
his assertion be the probability, reality, or necessity of a thing : 
e. g. Qv ift meUetcfyt geftorben, he is dead perhaps. (SS regnet, it 
rains. 3d) mufj arbetten, I must work. 2(uf ben SSevgen ift gm- 
fyeit ! bee #audj ber ©rufte fietgt ntd)t fytnauf in bie retnen Cfifte 5 tic 
SBelt ift DoHfommen uberatf/ wo ber SDfcenfd) ntdjt fytnfommt mtt feiner 
Dual/ upon the mountains is freedom ! the breath of graves 
ascends not in the pure air : the world is perfect, wherever man 
does not come with his troubles. — Schiller. 2Ctfer Sob in ber 
Sftatur ift ©eburr, all death in nature is birth. — Fichte. £er 
#af$ ift parttjeitfd)/ aber tk Stebe nod) mefytv hatred is partial, but 
love still more so. — Gothe. <5S war tfym eine tjerrUcfye (Smpftnbung 
mtt etnem getbfyerrn gu gtefyen, con bem er fid) fagen fonnte : unter feiner 
tfnf tuning ift ber Sob mafyrfdjetnltd) unb ber <5teg gewtjj/ it was to 
him a glorious feeling, to march with a general of whom he 
could say, under his command death is probable, and victory 
certain. — Gothe. 3ftan fagt: er ftirbt bale, wenn etner erma£ gegen 
fetne 3Crt unb SGSeife tf)ut/ we say, " he will die soon," when some 
one does anything against his custom and manner. — Gothe. 
£)afj Sutler ba$ SMntenfaf? nad) bem Seufel gemorfen fyar, gefdllt mtr 
red)t mofyl. 2Ber jid) 2>af)re long mtt bem $>abft unb feinem ungefjeuevn 
£eere t)erumfd)lagt/ fann letd)t Seufel gu fetyen giauben, that Luther 
threw the inkstand at the devil pleases me well. He who has 
to combat for years with the Pope and his enormous army, can 
easily imagine he sees devils. — Klinger. 28tr lernen bte 5Kenfd)en 
nid)t fennen/ menn fte gu uns fommen/ xovc mufien gu ifynen gefyen/ urn 
§u erfafyren ttrie eg mtt it)nen jtefyt/ we do not learn to know men 
when they come to us ; we must go to them, in order to know 
how matters stand.— Go Hhe. 

§ 116. The Subjunctive. 
A judgment, the truth of which is uncertain to the speaker, , 



112 THE MOODS. 

is expressed in the subjunctive ; it is, therefore, the mood of 
uncertainty and possibility : e. g. 3d) weif nid)t/ ob ber SBogel ft'nge, 
I do not know whether the bird sings. 

In the subjunctive, particularly the imperfect, is expressed 
a thought which does not correspond with reality : e. g. gaffc 
tt>are id) in ben ©trom gefunfeii/ 1 had almost sunk into the stream. 
— Gothe. (Sett ber *tett ijt mtr'S ate roSre ber £tmmet mtt einem 
f^warjen glor ubersogen, unb *)ieng fo ttcf tyerunter, ba$ man ftd) 
butfen mfifie/ urn md)t bran ju ftof? en, since that time it seems to me, 
as if heaven was covered with a black veil, hanging down so 
deeply as to compel one to stoop, in order not to touch it. — Gothe. 

Sentences which express a wish of the speaker, require the 
subjunctive : e. g. Song lebe ber $&nig/ long live the king. £)er 
SKenfdfo cerfudje bte ©otter md)t, let man not tempt the gods. — 
Schiller. £) f&f)jt bu roller 9ttonbenfd)etn jum le£ten Sftctl auf meine 
tyein, Oh, that you might look for the last time upon my trou- 
bles ; full light of the moon ! — Gothe. 

If a subordinate sentence contain the assertion or opinion of 
another, and which the speaker repeats, it is indicated by the 
subjunctive : e. g. (§x fagte/ ba$ er fommen wolle, he said he 
would come. SSon $?unbe ju SKunbe gieng nun bie «ftad)vtd)t : e§ 
feten dauber, in bem ©ebtrge, ein oomefymer junger %evt fet/ r-olltg 
aulgeplunbert, tern Sobe !aum entronnem from mouth to mouth the 
news now went, that there were robbers in the mountains, that 
a distinguished young gentleman, plundered of everything, had 
scarcely escaped death. — Steffens. @r befjauptete/ nur etn feltcnce 
23ergnugen tonne bei ben SXenfdjen einen SSSertf) fyaben ; ^tnber unb 
%tte wufiten nid)t gu fdia^en, was ifmen (SuteS begegnete/ he main- 
tained that only a rare pleasure could have any value with men ; 
that children and old people did not know how to appreciate 
what good things happened to them. — Gothe' <Sie fagen/ er lef 
cmd) in ben ©ternen/ they say that he also could read in the stars. 
— Schiller. 

The subjunctive is further employed in conditional sentences : 
e. g. SPSenn id) retd) ware/ fo laufte id) mtr btefeS £aug/ if I were 
rich, I would buy this house, fatten unr bie ©d)lad)t cerloren/ \va$ 



THE MOODS. US 

roikbe tyx (3d)tcffat fein ? if we had lost the battle what would 
be their fate ? — Gothe. ©em tydtt' id) nod) mety tyt Qegeben, bod) 
leer mat ber Soften/ I would gladly have given her still more, 
but the box was empty. — Gothe. SSurben fte nid)t fo gettyan tyafcen ? 
would you not have done so ? 

§ 117. The Imperative. 

The Imperative, the mood of necessity, conveys a command 
of the speaker : e. g. (Sprid) speak, Sefct read, gliefye btefen SSaum, 
bleib' ntdjt alUin, unb grafce fetne SSurgeln urn ?OHtternad)t, beveite 
feine Sranfe/ unb fd)retbe feinc 3etd)en in ten <2anb/ fly from this 
tree, remain not alone, and dig no roots at midnight, prepare 
no draughts and write no signs on the sand.— Schiller. 

The imperative is formed with lajfen, when the command of 
the speaker is addressed at the same time to himself: e.g. 
Haft unS gct)en, let us go. Saji'.unS benfen/ (gamont ! let us think, 
Egmont ! — Gothe. 



L 3 



§ 118. FORMATION OF WORDS. 

Vowels. 

The Vowels are the most liquid and mutable of all sounds ; 
for instance, in fpred}en, fprid)/ fprad), fpracfre/ gefprocheri/ <Sprud> 
©prurfje 5 or in roerben, xvixb, mxb, ttmrbe^ rourbe/ geroorben. The 
changes to which the vowels are subjected in passing through 
the different forms of a word in the chief Teutonic tongues, 
may generally be reduced to determinate laws ; although 
no fixed principles are yet discovered which enable us to 
account for all their changes. It may be remarked, that 
vowels in the terminations of words are liable to more frequent 
changes, and, consequently, to an earlier extinction, than those 
which belong to the root, or primitive form of the word. 

Note. — The full and strong vowels which we find in the terminations of 
words of the ancient tongue, have gradually disappeared, or been reduced 
in the present language to the dim and weak vowel e> as : Old High- 
German, diu diutisca zunka ; New High- German, bie £)eut[d)e jtonge/ the 
German tongue: kitrakida, ©etratbe^ corn : miluh, SfJltlctv milk : diu asca, 
bie 2(fd)e/ the ashes : diu sunna, bit ©Oline/ the sun : der mennisco, ber 
Sftenfd)/ the man: kiparida, ©ebarbe/ gesture: ^ifallan, gefallen, to 
please: siodan, ffebetl/ to boil: scinan, fcheinen, to shine: sconi, fd)6tl/ 
beautiful: muodi, mubC/ tired: niuwi, ncil/ new: kerno, get'n"/ willingly: 
sero, febr/ very (sore): ana, art/ on: vona, t)0tV from: durah, burd> 
through. 

at it U/ must be considered as primitive vowels ; e and o are 
less pure, the first having sprung from t or a, and the latter 
from u or a t as : Gothic niman, nehmen ; Gothic giban, geten ; 
Gothic vfto, oft; Gothic fugls, SSogel/ &c. 

The letters a f 6/ u, are termed modified sounds (tlmlaute), 
being modifications of the vowels a f 0/ u. When the root of a 
word which has one of the strong full vowels, at Ot u receives, 
either by way of inflection or derivation, an additional syllable, 
containing an it but which in the present German is generally 
changed into z, or entirely omitted ; then these three vowels change 



VOWELS. 115 

into a softer but weaker sound, the a into d> the o into 6/ and 
the u into u, as : 2Cft branch, 2Ceft=e branches (Old German, ast, 
plur. esti); ©ottgod, ©&tt*er gods (Old German, cot, plur. cot-ir); 
gut good, guMg kind ; btau blue, btdu-Ud) blueish ; ©rurtb ground, 
©runb-e grounds ; gtof great, grower greater ; ?CRann man, 
$Mnn=er men ; 93tdrm4n female ; ?0£dnnsd)ert mannikin ; mdnn4icl) 
manly. 

Diphthongs generally arise when, in the formation or inflec- 
tion of a word, another vowel is put before the radical vowel, 
to denote the change which an idea undergoes ; for instance, a 
put before u gives rise to the diphthong cm 5 before i to 015 e 
before t to ei 5 e before u to eu $ and i before e to ie. Compare 
the following words : 93ug and beugen/ fd)ludiert and «£d)laud)/ Sugenb 
and taugem ©ucftt and ©eudje, rttt and veiten/ fdfjmtt and fdjnetben. 
The vowel thus prefixed to the simple vowel of the root is called 
in-sound (3nlaut). 

Note 1. — The radical vowels a and U are then frequently softened into 
e, as: bangen to hang, tyieng hung ; fallen to fall, fiel fell ; rufen to call, 
rtef called.- 

Note 2. — The diphthong te has often originated from the diphthongs 
eu or iu of the more ancient language : e.g. flteft was formerly fleufjt/ 
and at a still earlier period fliuszit ; ffed) was formerly siuch ; biegen, or 
beugen/ was in the ancient tongue biugen ; triegen was triugen, &c. 

Finally, we may repeat that all vowels, simple and com- 
pound, have originally sprung from one of the three primitive 
vowels, <x t i, u. From a has arisen 0/ d/ e/ i, u, u. From the 
vowel i originates t, et, air ie. The u goes over into 0, ie ; eu, au. 

Note 1 . — The a is the most universal and constant of vowels ; it has 
remained the same in nearly all cognate words of the Teutonic family. 

Note 2. — The vowel X) is not German, but borrowed from the Greek, 
and ought to be only used in words taken from that language. 

The modified sound (Umlaut) must be carefully distinguished 
from the change of one vowel into another, called off-sound 
(2Cblaut), the latter being an essential principle of the language, 
and peculiar to every Germanic tongue. In consequence of 
fixed laws belonging to the very structure of our language, 
vowels in the root change, uninfluenced by the termination. 



116 consonants. 

§ 119. Consonants. 

The Consonants are either simple or double. Simple con- 
sonants are divided into liquids and mutes. 

The liquids are : 1/ mi x\ f v. They are called liquids from 
their peculiar nature of melting easily with other consonants 
into one sound. 

The mutes are divided, according to the different organs by 
which they are produced, into : 

Labials. — p, b/ f, \?, xt>. 
Linguals. — t, b t tt> 5, g. 

GUTTERALS. 1, Q, $), \, h. 

Mute consonants are again sub-divided into : 

Soft.—q,, b, b. 

Hard. — i t t, p. 

Aspirate. — dj/ tb/ pft (f). 
Note. — q and % are double letters, standing for lit) and H. 

2S and \ are termed also semi-vowels, being closely related to 
the vowels u and i, with which they often interchange. 

t)z called also spirant, i. e. breathing sound, stands in the 
lowest degree of articulation. 

The following (from the nature of their §pund) are called 
sibilants : f/ $/ f / fr r. 

A double consonant is either geminal, i. e. formed by the 
repetition of the same letter, as : bitten/ or compounded of two 
different letters, as : tod)en. 

Note, — A double consonant is frequently written to mark the acuteness 
of the sound: e. g. ffitt, fttttt. 

§ 120. Transition of Sound. 

In Indo-Germanic languages generally, and in the Teutonic 
dialects in particular, cognate mute sounds in the roots of re- 
lated words interchange with each other. For instance, instead 
of the lingual t in English words, the lingual 3 will be found in 
the same High-German words, as: to =311/ ten=5ebn, tame= 



TRANSITION OF SOUND. 



117 



gafym. Instead of the labial p in English, stands the labial f in 
German, as : up=auf, hemp=r#anf/ help=f)elfen. The English 
gutterals k and gh are changed into d) in the corresponding 
German words, as : break^brecfyen, make=mad)cn/ night=$ftad)t. 
This singular but regular interchange of mute consonants is 
called transition of sound (Sautoerfcfyiebung, sound-shifting). 

Considering the operation of this remarkable "law in relation 
to the Teutonic tongue, we distinguish three periods, viz. the 
Gothic (to the 5th century), the Old High-German (to the end 
of the 10th century), and the Middle and New High-German 
(from the 11th and 14th centuries to the present time). 

The following table exhibits the state of this law as it has 
operated in the Gothic, Old High-German, and New High- 
German languages : 



Labials. 


LlNGUALS. 


Gutturals. 


Gothic, b p f 
OHG. p f v 
NHG. b f f#o 


d t th 
t z d 

b(t) Hh) t> 


g k h 
h ch{hh) h (g) 
9 t 4(9) 


Examples : — 






Labials. 


LlNGUALS. 


Gutturals. 


Gothic, hindan fotus 
OHG. pintan vuoz 
NHG. btnben gufl 


dauhtar tamjan 
tohtar zeman 
SEocfyter g&fymen 


giban raihts 
kepan reht 
geben recfyt. 



In reference to the German and English languages, the tran- 
sition of mute consonants shows itself as follows : 



Labials. 

Ger. b p f (pf) 

Eng. b (v, f) p p 



LlNGUALS. 

th d t 



Gutturals. 

Ger. 9 f d) 

Eng. g c (k, ch) k (gh). 



118 transition of sound. 

Labials. 

<5d>aaf hafcen $>feff« 3>fab oott §alb (Sdjiff. 

sheep have pepper path full half ship. 

Hebe leben uhet ttef retf Qcben fteben. 

love live over deep ripe give seven. 

Ltnguals. 

was - ejjen SBafier ©trafe Sob tfjeuer ft|en. 

what eat water street death dear sit. 

4?atbe ta§ Sraum ,£a§e Stjut* S^al aug, 

heath that dream cat door dale out. 







Gutturals. 






5Dttld) 


3oc& 


Stdfot adfot £tnb 


fuM 


ton. 


milk 


yoke 


light eight child 


cool 


corn. 


Zat)t 


S^teid) 


roacfren hod) £imi 


£od) 


Ieu(4 


year 


like 


wake high chin 


cook 


chaste. 



Note.— As the hard labial p of the Old High German tongue changes in 
the New High-German into the softer hi all words of the present German 
language, having p for initial, are either of foreign origin, or., at least, not 
in accordance with the law of sound-transition. 

Mute consonants only are subject to this transition of sound ; 
the liquids, semi-vowels, and sibilants are not affected by it, 
nor does it extend to the terminations of words, which remain 
nearly the same in all languages of the Teutonic family. 

Note. — The sibilant f interchanges sometimes with the liquid Xt as: 
fiefen (Gothic kausjan) and furcn to choose ; war and was; frteren and 
freeze ; certferen and lose ; %a\e and hare : (Stfen and iron. 

That there should sometimes occur violations of this other- 
wise universal law, will surprise no one ; for in language, as in 
other things, there is no rule without exception. But even 
these exceptions and deviations follow a fixed principle, and 
are not arbitrary and accidental. Many parts of the structure 
of the language have become out of joint, as it were, and can 
be replaced no more. A number of words, too, of a happier 



THE ROOT. 119 

destiny, have escaped the powerful and combined influences of 
time, climate, migration, and conquest, beneath which others 
have bent, and have descended down to us untouched and un- 
injured. 

The law of the transition of sound, which operates so power- 
fully upon the most significant part of the word, i. e. the root, 
and the doctrine of the mutations of the latter by change of 
vowel (Ablaut), and in-sound (2>ntctut), are of the highest impor- 
tance in ascertaining the true etymology and original significa- 
tion of words. 

Note. — On, account of the very striking affinity between the German 
and English languages, both with regard to the formation of words and 
to idiom, the signification of a great number of words, and even of entire 
sentences, may be discovered at once, if the student will direct his atten- 
tion to this regular interchange of sounds. Almost all words of the 
English language that are of Saxon origin will be met with, more or less 
changed, in the German language, and these may be easily recognised, 
even in their foreign dress, by a judicious application of the first princi- 
ples of Etymology, 

§ 121. The Root. 

The whole mass of words of any language, however rich and 
cultivated, can be reduced to a comparatively small number of 
roots, from which all its copiousness and riches have been 
derived. 

Note. — The number of roots which are disseminated in all Teutonic 
languages does not exceed 600, of which about 460 alone are to be 
sought in the complex and irregular verbs, that is, in all such as adhere 
(or, at least, did so formerly) to the principle of forming their preterites 
and past participles by an internal change of sound in the root. These 
primitive verbs, so widely spread and interwoven with every part of the 
language, constitute, even now, its principal strength, nor can they be 
destroyed without the destruction of the language itself. 

If a word be deprived of all signs of inflection and derivation, 
that which remains is called the root, which is the primitive 
substance out of which proceeds a whole family of words : e. g. 
©prad) is the root of fpredjen, ©prud), @pracf;«, ©prefer/ ©efprdd), 
Qefprdd>ig/ wrfptechen,/ entfpredjen, &c. 



120 THE ROOT. 

The root consists of one syllable only, i. e. of a simple vowel 
and one or more simple consonants : e. g. fcant>, vit, fanb, gab, 
ruf, litt &c. 

Note. — The origin of roots we leave untouched; we may, however, 
state that the root is the simple syllable which marks the first appearance 
of a thing, and which, according to its purest signification, is neither a 
verb nor a noun, but is that from which existing verbs and nouns have 
been formed. It is often easy to discover the root ; for example, take 
from the word leud)ten to light, the in-sound e> and the affixed syllable 
ten, there will remain lud)/ Old German luh, Latin luc-ere. 

As the root may appear in all kinds of words, it seems too 
much to assign its origin exclusively to verbs. The greatest 
number of words, certainly, have originated from verbal roots, 
but there still remain a great many nouns and particles which 
cannot be traced to that source. The primitive pronouns 
also constitute a distinct class of roots, from which have 
sprung other pronouns, and many particles. 

Primitive verbs and nouns, the two most essential parts of 
speech, both being of absolute necessity to the expression of 
human thought, must also, in the infancy of language, have 
sprung up simultaneously from the root. 

Note 1. — Dr. Becker, and some other eminent etymologists, declare 
that the roots of all words were originally verbs. Professor Grimm, 
though inclining towards the same opinion, merely says, that verbs appear 
to be the foundation of all words. 

Note 2. — Of a great number of words the roots are lost, but many, 
though no longer existing in the present High-German language, are still 
found in the ancient tongue, or in cognate branches, ancient as well as 
modern, of the Teutonic family. 

Although the preterite or imperfect tense shows to us the 
root of the verb in its purest and simplest form, we may still, 
in a more practical point of view, take the infinitive as the 
radical form of the verb. 

§ 122. All verbs conjugated after the complex order, and 
those which we consider to be irregular, are radical or primitive 
words. Besides these, a number of verbs, which, in the present 
language, no longer change the vowel of the root, but have 



PRIMITIVES. 



121 



adopted the simple order of conjugation, must also be classed 
with the radical verbs. They are the following : — 



bauen 


graufen 


mad}en 


fagen 


fpanncn 


roeben 


betlen 


tyaften 


mdben 


[djaben 


fpetfen 


roebren 


blduen 


fallen 


mcinen 


fd)aben 


jtveben 


wetlen 


blinfen 


btn!en 


ndfjen 


fd)alten 


ftreuen 


mcinen 


bluben 


iagen 


nagen 


fcbauen 


fucfyen 


roetjen 


braud?en 


Unm 


neiben 


fdjmdten 


taugen 


ttrinfen 


bccfen 


laufen 


netgcn 


fd)merjen 


tbeilen 


mirlen 


befynen 


fcrben 


niefen 


fdjmteren 


trauen 


ttrifcfyen 


borren 


fnrtcn 


rauben 


fdjneten 


n>ad)en 


roobnen 


brefyen 


frdtjen 


raud)en 


fdjroeifen 


wdfyfen 


wfinfd&en 


brutfen 


fttegen 


raufdjen 


fcfyroetgen 


rodfynen 


nmttjen 


flud;en 


lad^cn 


retaken 


fdfjwt&en 


roatfen 


jdblen 


frcten 


Iauten 


retfyen 


fettjen 


roaUen 


3erren 


fufylen 


U&m 


rcuen 


ft'edjen 


fatten 


jtemen 


gdfynen 


leucfyten 


rutf'en 


fpatten 


rodtgen 


gunben. 


gluten 


lieben 


fdfyen 









Note. — Many primitive verbs have assumed one of the prefixes be/ Ctlt 
(cmp)/ gc/ er/ t»cr/ §etv as : ge4ingen/ tser^geffen/ ent^ftetjeii/ &c. 

The original signification of the primitive verbs is that of an 
intransitive activity: e. g. geben/ fatten/ taufen/ &c, but many of 
them have, in the course of time, assumed a transitive signifi- 
cation, as : er fdngt ben SSoget/ he catches the bird. @r fdjldgt 
ben $unb/ he beats the dog. 

§ 123. All words, according to their mode of formation, are 
either Primitive, Derivative, or Compound. 



§ 124. PRIMITIVES. 

Primitive words spring immediately from the root itself, either 
by, or without changing the radical vowel : e. g. the root 
banb produces the primitives Sknb/ SSunb/ Sinbe/ binben $ from the 
root brad) originate the primitives brad)/ SSrud)/ S3rad)e/ 33redje/ 
bvccfen 5 from fcblag have sprung ©<Maa,/ ®d)Iad)t fcfjlagen. 

M 



122 



DERIVATIVES. 



Note 1. — Many substantive primitives have assumed a termination 
foreign to the root itself, i. e. either a t (U, ft), b (be)/ or an e. Sub- 
stantives thus formed are called spurious primitives: e. g. from the root 
" flttg" is formed the spurious primitive §luch=t 5 from " gter " is formed 
3tersbe 5 from " gab " is formed <3ab'i. 

Note 2.— The affixes el/ en ; it, have sometimes no signification attached 
to them, and in this case the words formed with them are termed Primi- 
tives of the Middle Form, as they constitute an intermediate link between 
the primitives and derivatives, as: ©tadjsel/ SReQ-en, ginger, bunf=el/ 
&c. But these affixes, especially zxt sometimes convey a meaning, and 
as such they are employed in the formation of derivatives, as: «§eb*el/ 
©d)neib=et/ golb=en/ &c 

All complex and irregular verbs, together with those of the 
Simple Order, enumerated under § 122, and all monosyllabic 
substantives, adjectives, pronouns and particles, are primitive 
words. 

§ 125. DERIVATIVES. 

Derivatives are formed by adding to the primitive form of a 
word, or to the root itself, certain terminations or affixes : e. g. 
from gut is derived gutxtg 5 from road) are derived wacfcfam/ 2Bad\= 
fam-leit/ 2Bdd)=ter/ &c. 

The following are the affixes most used in the formation of 
derivatives : anb, atb, cl;en/ be/ Q t ei/ el/ er, beit, ig, id;t/ id)/ in (inn)/ 
ing/ fett/ lein/ ling/ ntjj/ rid)/ fal/ \&)a}t, [el/ tfrum/ ung/ uti). 

The origin of most of these affixes is obscure. Some of 
them, however, are recognised as original nouns or verbs, as : 
tl;um (Old High-German, tuom or tuam 9 signifying power, 
empire) ; lid) (Gothic, leiks, Old High-German, lih, English, 
like) ; beit or leit (Gothic, liaids, Old High-German, heit, sig- 
nifying person, state, condition) ; fdjaft (from fcbajfen) ; bar 
(Old High-German, par producing, or peran to bear) ; and 
fjaft (from baften). The signification of many of the affixes is 
extinguished, and no new words can be formed with them. The 
following affixes, however, must be considered living, and are 
still used in the derivation of new words, viz. d)en/ Ictm ei/ cv, 
heir (fett)/ in, ling/ fdjaft, tbum/ ung/ for substantives ; hat, oft, id)t/ 
ig ; tfd)/ lid)/ farm for adjectives ; and el?n and er^n for verbs. 



COMPOUNDS. 



123 



Note. — Sometimes, between the root and the termination of deriva- 
tion, the syllables eo en (n), {$, t, are introduced. This is done merely 
on account of euphony, and no meaning is then attached to them : e. g. 
gl&fsersn, lefcer=Ucb/ !enn44td), MMg4«it, (Solb^er, reinsig=en. 

§ 126. COMPOUNDS. 

Compounds are formed by uniting two or more separate and 
independent words into one, as : Xuf#gongf TCb^retfe/ SdjausfpteUfyauS/ 
bev>uor/ ba=5U, n>ea,*geben, etn-fatleii/ &c. 

Words formed with inseparable particles (prefixes), belong 
also to the compounds, as : besfenneii/ ersbieteri/ S3ersnunft, &e- 
fcftret/ &c. Some etymologists, however, class them with the 
derivatives. 

Note. — The inseparable particles are forms of diminished and mutilated 
words, the signification of which has become obscure. Neither their 
original form nor meaning can now be traced with certainty ; they seem, 
however, to be most related to the prepositions, but they do dot occur 
like them as separate words in speech. The following are these prefixes: 
bC/ ent (emp)/ er, ge, oer and ger. Words that are compounded with 
them are termed spurious compositions. 

§ 127. FORMATION OF. THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

Primitives. 

Primitive substantives are divided into pure, spurious, and 
Primitives of the Middle Form. 

I. Pure primitive substantives are formed mostly from verbal 
roots with or without change of the radical vowel, e. g. from 
roadmen to grow, is formed ber SEBucfyS growth ; from werfsen to 
throw, ber SBurf throw ; from jtefcen to draw, ber 3ug draught ; 
from beifcen to bite, ber SSif bite ; from febein^en to appear, ber 
©djetn appearance ; from fallen to fall, ber gait fall, &c. 

Note. — Primitive substantives, pure as well as spurious, express : — 

a. The idea of something active, e. g. S3onb band (baS £3tnbenbe)j 
glof) flea (ber gltebenbe)* gluj* river lbo6 gttefenbe); Sfaud) smoke 
(ba$ Sftecbenbe); gltege fly (bte gttegenbej) ©dfjlange snake (bte 
©djltngenbe). 

b. The notion of something done or become, as: (Sprud) saying (bag 
©efprochene)} ©rab grave (\>a§ ©egrabene); 2£ort word (ka$ ©ewor* 



124 



FORMATION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 



bene) 5 SDlild) milk (ba& ©emolfene); @d)vift writing (ba$ ©efdjrte- 
bene); ©abe gift (bag ©ege bene). 

c. Or they indicate the abstract idea of the activity (i. e. of the verb), 
e.g.: glua, flight, <Sd)lUJ3 conclusion, ©enufj enjoyment, gall case, Srug 
deception, gleif? diligence. 



§ 128. Gender of Pure Primitives. 

Pure primitive substantives, and the compositions thereof 
with particles and prefixes, as : %b^nq, tfn^uo,/ SSer^ug, S^ucf* 
fall/ (Stn=fall, @nt=fd)lujj, &c, are of the masculine gender. 

Exceptions : — 

a. The Feminine Substantives: 



2Cu 


guht 


£affc 


Suft 


$)etn 


(3d) nut 


Sl)ur 


tfrbeit 


gorm 


#aut 


Suft 


*>* 


<Sd)uU> 


ilbr 


2Crt 


grau 


£ulb 


SOfatf: 


Dual 


<Stfur 


2£ab,l 


SSaljn 


Srijl 


#Ut 


SKaft 


Stoft 


(See 


SBanb 


SSan! 


©ang 


Sflu^leb 


c Sfflaug 


Sftubr 


©pur 


SBe&r 


S3raut 


©e=buhr 


£oft 


?0Jaut 


<3au 


©preu 


SBSelt 


SSrujt 


©e=fabr 


£ub 


StfWd) 


(Sdiam 


etabt 


SBSutlj 


SSrot 


©eip 


£ut 


SJWj 


(2d)aar 


©tatt 


3abl 


SSurg 


@e=walt 


Saft 


?Rotb 


<Sd)au 


©Urn 


3cft 


gfo? 


©ier 


Saug 


sftua 


(Sd)eu- 


©treu 


3ier. 


Slut 


£anb 


Sift 


«Ku& 


©d)mad) 










6. 77?e Neuter Substantives. 




2CaS 


SSlatt 


(SiS 


©elb 


#emb 


£leib 


Sod) 


2fmt 


SSlet 


(Snbe 


©lag 


£erj 


£nie 


Soog 


2Mifc 


SBlut 


<5rbe 


©lieb 


£eu 


£om 


Sorb 


ttuge 


S3oot 


@vj 


©olb 


£irn 


.Kraut 


smabj 


2iugenmer! SSrett 


Sad) 


©rab 


£olj 


£reu$ 


SOlal 


SSab 


95rob 


Sa& 


©rag 


£orn 


Samm 


9Xat$ 


SSeil 


25ud) 


gefo 


£aar 


£ufm 


Sanb 


sffiarl 


SSetn 


Sad) 


geU 


£ar 5 


Sabr 


Scub 


5)Jfa^ 


S3e=ftec£ 


Sing 


Sett 


$aupt 


3ocb 


Seib 


ffltoul 


SSett 


Sorf 


glei(d) 


£aug 


£alb 


Sid)t 


Sfteer 


SSter 


ec? 


'glof 


£eet 


£tnb 


Steb* 


Sttebl 


SSilb 


(Si 


©arn 


$eil 


£inn 


Sob 


SKooS 



?)3u6 


>Pfanb 


3fobr 


Weft 


$[erb 


$Rq$ 


^e^ 


9>funb 


<Sats 


Obft 


fRab 


(Scfyaaf 


Del 


Sfab 


®d)tit 


£bt 


dltid) 


©d&iff 


spaat* 


dteti 


©d)i(f 


g)ed) 


&inb 


©djlop 



FORMATION OP THE SUBSTANTIVE. 125 

©d)mat$ ©tucE ffiteb SBilb 

©cbocf &au Sole SBSovt 

©chroem Sbal 2Bad)6 3elt 

©cftwert Sbter SBebc 3eug 

©eil Sbor SSetb 3iel 

©ieb £ud) SOSerg 3in! 

(Spiel S5er=be^ 28er? 3tnn. 

©trot) 23er-lteg 

iVote 1. — Many pure primitives have taken the prefix ge/ as: ©cfefc/ 
@ebot/ &c. These are neuter, except the following, which are masculine: 
©ebraud), ©erucb/ ©efang, ©ejranf , ©enunn. 

A r ote 2.— The following masculine substantives in e belong originally 
to the pure primitives: griebe, $unfe/ ©ebanfe/ ®laube, #aufe/ Mfe, 
Carrie/ ©ame/ ©chabe/ 23ud)ftabe, 2BUle. 

§ 129. II. Spurious primitive substantives are those which 
have added to the root the terminations t (U, ft), b (be)/ or e, as : 
from flieb=en to flee, is formed tie glucfist flight ; from fd)vetb;en 
to write, bte ©djrifct writing ; from jag^en to hunt, tie Sag-b 
hunting ; from fcUen to sow, bte ®aa-t seed ; from tbu=en to do, 
bte Sbcut deed ; from f&nr^en to be able, bie -Kurtsft/ art ; from 
ffiegsen to fly, bte gltegse fly ; from fpinn^en to spin, bte ©ptnrt=e 
spider ; from gonn=en to grant, bte ©un=jl favor ; from tternebmen 
to perceive, bte £3er=ntmf=t reason ; from fd)tag-en to beat, bte 
<&d)lad):t battle ; from lomm=en to come, bie §u=lunf=t and fcfunfct/ 
the future and arrival. 

Note. — Spurious primitives in eare particularly numerous; they must 
not be confounded, however, with the derivatives in e/ although there 
exists no difference of gender between them. 



§ 130. Gender of Spurious Primitives. 

Primitive substantives of the spurious form are of the 
feminine gender. 

The following exceptions, however, are masculine : SSebadjt/ 
SSetrad)t, SMenft, £>odjt, £rabt, ' Suft, Sunjt/ Surjt, (Stnjr, Zn$, 
©Sfcbt, ©enrinnft, ^eft, ©aft, ©cr,ad)t, ©djaft, ©tift, Svojr, S3erbad)t, 

m 3 



126 



FORMATION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 



SSerluj!, S&anjt, SBufy. Another exception is neuter, viz. baZ 
©ift poison. 

Note.— Some spurious primitives have taken the prefix ge> as: tie 
©e=bur~r, bte ©e=fd}td)=te (from gefcbeben), tie ©e=bar=be. 

§ 131. III. A great many primitives have assumed one of 
the endings el/ en/ er, to which terminations, in this case, no 
meaning is attached, as : ^omm^er, ©att=el, @art=en, &c. . Sub- 
stantives thus formed are termed primitives of the middle 
form. 

§ 132. Gender of Primitives of the Middle Form. 



Substantive primitives 


of the middle form are of the mascu- 


line gender. 












Exceptions :— 














a. 


The Feminine Substantives : — 




2Cber 


hammer 


3Sufrer 


Sroffel 


pummel 


Stafpel 


(Spin bet 


tfufter 


belter 


(Sd;leuber ©idjel 


£ltgcl 


SfZaffel 


©faffel 


SSlatter 


liefer 


<Sd)ulter 


gatfel 


$uppel 


(£d)ad)tet ©toppel 


SSutter 


hammer 


2Cd)fe( 


Mel 


£urbel 


©d^aufei Safel 


(Sifter 


flapper 


2Cmpet 


gibel 


Mangel 


©diaufel Srommel 


Safer 


Scber 


tfmfet 


©abel 


Sittufdjel 


<Sd)inbel 


25Jad)te( 


geber 


Seiter 


2Cnget 


©eifel 


SRabel 


©dyujfel 


SBoffel 


glitter 


sftafer 


SSudfet 


©urgel 


SZeffel 


©emmel 


SBinbel 


goiter 


Matter 


£)etd)fel 


4?ed)el 


«Kubel 


©td)el 


SBurjel. 


£alfter 


£)tter 


£tftel 












b 


. The Neuter Substantives 


: — 




2Cttcr 


©atter 


Seber 


SStofter 


Ufer 


Sftanbel 


gutlen 


23auer 


(Sitter 


Suber 


spolfter 


Staffer 


SRubel 


tfifien 


©iter 


staffer 


Salter 


sRuber 


better 


SBiefel 


fiehen 


(Sitter 


£ager 


Sfteffer 


(gtlber 


SKhtnber 


SBeccen 


SBappen 


guber 


Softer 


SJtteber 


<Steuer 


3immer 


<5t(en 


•teidjen. 


gutter 















Note. — The two preceding lists are arranged alphabetically according 
to each of the terminations eiV eh en. 



formation of the substantive. 127 

$ 133. Derivative Substantives. 

— ev. The affix er is used to form masculine names of 
persons, as : ber 3Raub=er the robber, ber <Schnetb=er the tailor, 
ber SSerlin^er the inhabitant of Berlin, ber ©dfcroetjser the Swiss. 
They are formed from verbs, substantives, and proper names 
of places and countries. 

Note. — Proper names thus formed are frequently used as adjectives, but 
then they are indeclinable, e.g. ber SGMensCr Jtunjtler/ the Vienna artist. 
£)ie Setpstg^er 5D?effe, the fair of Leipzig. 

— in (inn). By this affix, masculine names of persons* 
are made feminine, e.g. tie #irtstn the shepherdess, bie StbmQ-in 
the queen, Me ©anger^in the singer. 

— d)en and lein. By the affixes d)en and lein are formed 
diminutives, e. g. £)a$ (So^rtsdjen/ or <2>ohn4etn/ the little son, 
bat SDlcffersdjcn the little knife, ba$ SEtfdjsdjen the little table. 

Note. — The affix chen is peculiar to the Lower (North) German dialect, 
and lein to the Upper German (South). 

All diminutives are of the neuter gender. 

— ting. With this affix are formed names of persons from 
substantives and adjectives, e. g. ter 9iadjtomm4in3 the de- 
scendant, ber £6f=ltng the courtier. It denotes frequently 
contempt: ber £5idjter-ltng the poetaster. A few names of 
animals and of things are also formed with ling/ as : ber $dnf= 
ling the linnet, ber £drier4tng chopped straw. 

All substantives in ling are of the masculine gender. 

— ung. This affix is employed in the formation of nouns of 
action from derivative and compound transitive verbs, e. g. 



* It is to be observed that the term "names of persons" must be 
taken in its widest sense, applying to all human beings, such as RaxL 
9J?arie/ SOtonn/ grau/ £trt/ Sftauber/ ©anger/ Sanserif dlk\c, dlittev, &c. 
Opposed to the names of persons are the "names of things," abstract 
nouns included, such as £auS/ SSaum, SGSeg/ SQSalb/ Sfficife, @tolg/ $er* 
nunft, &c. The names of animals form an intermediate species, but they 
approach very near the names of persons in their grammatical signification 
or application, as: £6tt>e> Saube, Siger/ SBSurm, gifd), S3ar, &<:. 



128 FORMATION OP THE SUBSTANTIVE. 

tie Ueberfe^ung the translation, bte jtoftSrsung destruction. 
This affix often indicates the state which the verb denotes, as : 

tie ©rfahivung experience, bte ©rbnsung order. 

Note. — A few substantives of this form are derived from substantives, 
and these have a collective signification, e. g. bte SBalb^ung the wood, 
bte ©fallsung the stabling, tie ^leib^ung clothing. 

Derivatives in ung are of the feminine gender. 

— ntfj. Substantives formed with nip express abstract and 
concrete notions ; they are derived from verbs and substantives, 
e. g. ta§ 23unb=mj3 alliance, ba$ SSerjeic^rtif the catalogue, t>a$ 
(Sr3euasnti* the product, ba$ £tnber=mfi the impediment. 

' Note. — The following only are formed from adjectives : bte §tnftet=nif$/ 
bte 2Bilb*mj?/ t>a& @ehetm=ntp. 

Substantives in nip are neuter, with the exception of the 
following, which are feminine : SSebr&ngntfj, SBef fimmermfj/ 23e* 
forgntf/ SSetrfibmf/ SSewanbtnip/ (Smpfangnip/ (Srfparmfj ©rlaubntp/ 
S&ulnip/ ginfternffr £enntm|5, 23evbammntf, 8Bttbnij?. 

— fa I and fel. By these affixes substantives are derived from 
primitive substantives, and from some verbs. They express 
concrete and abstract notions, e. g. bag SRattKel the riddle, 
ba$ £d)tc?=fa( fate. 

Substantives in fel and fat are neuter. 

— ei. Substantives in ei are formed from other substantives, 
and from verbs. Words of this form are either nouns of action, 
as : £eud)el=et hypocrisy, @d)metd)el*ei flattery, sDrutfersei print- 
ing establishment ; or collective nouns, as : SReiter-ci cavalry, 
<2tuter=et stud. 

Derivatives in ei are of the feminine gender. 

— fdjaft. This affix is used in the formation of nouns of 
action from names of persons, e. g. greunbsfdjaft friendship, 
$ned)tsfd)aft slavery, geinb»fd)aft enmity. Substantives in fdjaft 
are used as collective nouns for persons, e. g. bte S3urger=fd , aft 
citizenship, S3ruber=fd)aft brotherhood. 

Derivatives in fdjaft are feminine. 

— tfeum. This affix is closely related to fdjaft j it is added to 
names of persons, and signifies quality, condition, dignity, &c 



FORMATION OF THE SUBSTANTIVE. 129 

as : £6nig4fyum royalty, (5fyriften=t£)um Christendom, 3fUtter4hum 
knighthood. It is rarely added to adjectives and verbs, as : 
ditifytyum riches, 3t*-tf)um error, 25$ad)6=thum growth. 

Substantives in tt)um are neuter, except 3nfy\\m f Sftetcbtbum 
and SBSacfystfyum/ which are masculine. 

— Jjett and lett. These two affixes, which are etymologically 
the same, are used in the formation of nouns of quality from 
adjectives, e. g. gteisfycft freedom, $ufyn4)ett boldness, ©efunbs 
t>ctt health, UKSgltdjsfeit possibility, (StteUf ett vanity. 

Note. — The affix fett, instead of t)Clt/ is used with adjectives having an 
affix, except with such as end in en and with the adjective bttnfel/ as: 
Uefcelsf eit/ ©tdjts&arsfett. 

Substantives in fiett and lett are feminine. 

— e- With e are also formed nouns of quality from adjectives, 
e. g. ©rof^e greatness, ©ut?e kindness, Cdng-e length, #ail>e 
hardness, RalUe coldness, Sreu^e faith, @titt*e stillness, Steb-e 
love. 

Substantives in e are of the feminine gender. 

Note. — The following adjective-substantives must not be confounded 
with the preceding; they are names of persons and animals, and are of 
the masculine gender, viz.: li^z, S3arbe, S3otC/ S&xa&ti S3ube/ SBllfyUt 
fSvLlUt Surge/ a3urfd)e, £rad)e/ (Srbe/ gatfe, %axve, ®atU, ®b§e, £afe> 
%tibe, Sube/ 3unge/$dmpe/ £nabe/,Knappe/ Zak, Sbrce/ SKeffe/ tyatty, 
^Pfaffe; tRabe, SRayyt, SRetfe/ SRtefe/ SSube/ ©d)ur!e, ©cbu§e, ©tee/ 
Srappe/ £euge. To these may be added also the masculine names of per- 
sons formed with the prefix ge/ as: ©efdhrte/ ©efyulfe, ©enofie/ ©efelle/ 
©efptele} and the names of nations in t, as: ber ^Preitfje/ @d}n>abe/ 
gvan3ofe/ ©ad)fe/ SSobme/ S^uffe/ Surfe/ ©djroebe/ Sane/ ©rtecbe, &c. 
See also § 128, Note 2. 

Prefix ge — . With the prefix ge are formed collective nouns 
and nouns of action from primitive substantives. The vowel 
of the primitive syllable is modified, e. g. ©e-bufd) bushes, 
©e=btvge chain of mountains, ©eswaffer waters, ©e=rdufd) noise, 
@e=brdnge pressure, ©esfprdd) conversation. 

With the prefix ge are formed also iterative nouns from 
verbs, without modification of vowel, e. g. ©c=rebe talking, 
©erbraufe roaring, ©e=rctffel rattling. 

Substantives formed with the prefix ge are neuter. 



130 formation of the substantive. 

§ 134. Compound Substantives. 

Substantives may be compounded with all kinds of words 
and prefixes, e. g. 2Betn-glaS/ S3aum=wolle/ S?6(e=ttrid)t/ SMr=bat>n, 
#n-fang, 2(uf=franb/ SScrsnunft/ Grnkfditufj/ Un=gtuc£/ Itefpnrag/ &c. 

The last member of the composition is called \\& fundamen- 
tal word (©runbroort)/ and contains the principal notion, which 
is defined by the first, i. e. the determinative word ($e|timmung§= 
wort)/ e. g. ginsjjang/ tfufoug, &c. 

The determinative word frequently takes, on account of 
euphony, the syllables e, eii/ e» (S)/ e. g. Sag^bucf!, tfug=en= 
bMf ©tegsfSsfieb* ^utf^truppen/ SBcibnad)t^ge(d)en!. 

A T ofe. — The determinative word always assumes the letter §/ if it has 
one of the terminations fd)aft/ f)evt/ ung/ ling/ e. g. ^reimbfcbaftSbienft/ 
gteibeit§lieb,&c. 

The following particles are particularly used in the com- 
position of substantives : an, ah, auf/ au§, aujjeiv bet/ bar, ein/ fort# 
gegen/ gcfammt/ fjeim/ bin/ f)er, btnter/ mtt, nad), neben/ nteber, ob/ 
erne/ queo fiber/ mm untet/ vor/ wiebetv iriber, roobl, JU/ gir-crcb, 
aunfdien : 2Cn*funft/ @tn=gang/ Um=ftd)t, 2Cb*far;rt/ Untcr^gang, ©egen= 
franb/ 3u-£unft/ &c. 

The particles abet, after/ ei'5/ mrfj/ un and uiv are no longer 
used as separate and independent words, but substantives are 
frequently compounded with them : — 

aber — means again, as : abermalg. It signifies also that 
which is erroneous, spurious, e. g. 2Cbentrifc insanity, tfbergtaube 
superstition. 

after — signifies that which follows, as well as that which is 
false, e. g. 2Cftergcbuut after-birth, 2Cfterrebe slander, Xficrffcttg 
mock-king. 

ei'5 — indicates always that which is highest according to its 
condition or quality: grgtyerjog archduke, (SrjbofenNdjt arrant- 
villain, (Stengel archangel. 

mtj5 — expresses the defectiveness of a thing, as : 3Tu'pbraud> 
abuse, SKtjjgriff mistake. 

un — signifies either the absence of that which is expressed 
in the fundamental word, or it indicates the opposite quality of 



GENDER OF PRIMITIVE SUBSTANTIVES. 131 

a thing, as: Unjrerblid)feit immortality, Unfiudjtfcaifeit sterility, 
Unban! ingratitude, Unglucf misfortune, Unft'nn nonsense. 

ur — means first, primitive, as: Urfprung origin, Unralb 
primitive forest, Urbilb archetype, Urquell fountain-head. Some- 
times it has the same signification as the prefix er: Urtfyeil 
judgment, sentence, from ertheiten. 

Substantives are compounded with the prefixes he, ent (emp), 
ev, uer, ger, as : SSerrath, SSefebl, (Srfdjaffung, (Smpfeljlung, jkrftcrung, 
&c. These prefixes have, in substantives, the same power as 
in the corresponding verbs : serration/ befeftlen, erfd)affen, emp= 
ferjleri/ &c. 

Note. — On the gender of compound substantives, see § 11. 

§ 135. The theory of the gender, as dependent on the form 
of the word, being briefly recapitulated, the following rules 
may be established ; and these, as nearly as possible, exhaust 
the subject. 

I. Gender of Primitive Substantives. 

1. Primitive substantives (monosyllables), and the com- 
positions of the same with particles and prefixes are of the 
masculine gender, e. g. ber 23auni/ ber £etb, ber ©ang, ber gall, 
ber fcfang, ber 2fuf?gang, ber jtasftonb, ber 33er=t.auf, ber 3er=fatl/ 
ber (gntsfd)tupr &c. The exceptions are the feminine and neuter 
primitives enumerated under § 128. a and b. 

As exceptions also may be considered the spurious primitives 
(ending in t, ft, b/ and e)/ which are of the feminine gender, as : 
bte t£d)rif=t, tie £un=ft, hie 3ier=be, hie ®ab'-e, &c. Those in t, ft, b, re, 
be, are not numerous, and are all to be found amongst the substan- 
tives given under § 21, 2, and § 129. Spurious substantives in 
e, however, are in great number ; and may be taken together 
with the derivatives in e (§ 133. — e)/ which are likewise of the 
feminine gender. The latter must not be confounded with 
the adjective- substantives in e (§ 133. — e. Note), which are 
masculine. 

Note I. — A few spurious primitives are masculine; they are to be 
found under § 130. 



132 GENDER OF DERIVATIVE SUBSTANTIVES. 

Note 2.— Primitive substantives of the spurious form must be distin- 
guished from those pure primitives in which the letters b and t belon<* to 
the root itself. 

2. Primitive substantives of the middle form, viz., all sub- 
stantives with the affixes, m, el/ er, are also masculine, e. g. bet 
48ater/ ber £anbel, bet SSefen, &c. 

The exceptions are the feminine and the neuter words given 
under § 132. a. and b. 



II. Gender of Derivative Substantives. 

1. Masculine. — All derivatives in er, ing, ling and {$, as : bn 
SOtoUer, ber 2ieb4tng/ bet ,Kon=tg. 

2. Feminine. — All derivatives in l;eit, fait/ fcr-aft/ ung> ei/ e/ in 
(inn)/ atb, utb, e.g. bte growth tie ,£ned)t=fd)aft, tie gafinmg/ 
tie Sftetter^et/ btc ^teb-e/ bte ^eit^atb, Sec. 

Note 1. — The exceptions are ber £otn=ung, and ba$ $Pet=fcbaft. 

Note 2. — It is a remarkable peculiarity, that the very large number of 
abstract substantives formed with affixes are nearly all of the feminine 
gender. 

3. Neuter. — All derivatives in ta/ Ieui/ \ah fcl and nif i e. g. 
bas £inb=lein> ba$ S3aum=d)en/ ba& ©d}icf=jal/ ba& JQinbewifs, &c. 

Note. — The exceptions are 3 masculine words inthum(§ 133. — thlim )/ 
and 13 feminine words in ntf? (§ 133. — nij?)« The substantive Sfubfal is 
used both in the feminine and neuter genders. 

Neuter are also the substantives formed with the prefix ge * 
(§ 133. ge — ), as : bat @e*fid)t, taS ©e=raufo\ &c. 

Note 1 .—Exceptions : The feminine words ©ebutt/ ©ebulb/ @efd)id)te/ 
©ebarbe/ ©email/ ©efabt/ ©ebubt/ and the masculine words ©ebraucb, 
©evudb/ ©cfang/ ©eftanl, ©enufj/ ©efchmac?/ ©enrinn; all of which, 
however, belong to the primitive substantives. 

Of the neuter gender are likewise all infinitives used substan- 
tively, as : bo§ ©eben/ ba€ ©djreiben/ bat ©predjen j and all adjec- 
tives used as substantives of an abstract signification, as : ba$ 



* The prefix ge is the only one which has any influence on the gender 
of the substantive. 



GENDER OF COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES. 133 

ertotb, ba$ £)unfel/ ba$ ©utc/ ba$ <Sd)5ne/ &c. Adjectives, however, 
being used as names of persons, must also receive a personal 
gender, e. g. ber 2Htc/ tic %\tz, ber SBeife, bic £eutfd)e. 

Note. — All words are neuter, which, without being real substantives, 
and without changing their form, are used with the definite article as 
abstract nouns, as : bag @ud)ert/ ba§ SCRuf?/ ba& ©run/ ba$ 3d)/ ba$ #ier 
unb ba$ Sort/ bat SGSenn unb bat 2Cber, &c. 

III. Gender of Compound Substantives. 

Compound substantives receive the gender of the principal 
word of the composition, i. e. of the last, as : ber 2tmt=mann/ tie 
Oetflafche, ba& (SdjaufpiclbauS/ ba§ grauensimmer/ bie ^ofHrcbe/ ber 
£auptmann/ &c. 

Exceptions : ber SXitttt-od)/ ber 2Cbfd)eu/ bie 2Cntisort/ baZ ©egentfeett/ 
bie 2Cnmutb/ £)emutb/ ©rofmutb/ fiangmutb/ (ganftmuth/ (gefyr-ermutb, 
SBebmutb. 

iVote. — Names "of towns are always neuter, of whatever gender the 
principal word may be, as : ba$ Hamburg, ba& SCRagbeburg/ ba§ ©bin? 
burg/ bag ^oniggberg/ &c. Names of castles, however, compounded with 
SSurg/ are feminine, as : bie SOSartburg, bie (SngelSburg, bie Soggenburg. 

§ 136. FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

Primitives. 

Primitive adjectives spring from the root with or without 
change of vowel : e. g. the roots of the adjectives tt>ad> tt>etfe* 
bteid), burr/ jab/ treu/ gktd), glatt/ fdf)6n, are found in the primitive 
verbs rrad)?ert/ tt>tff=ert/ bleid^ert/ borr^eri/ jteb=en/ tracer!/ gleicb=ert/ 
gleit=ett/ fd)ein=en. 

A T o£e 1. — Some primitive adjectives have taken the prefix ge/ as: ge? 
TKbrrt/ gesfunb/ ge-mifj/ ge=nau. 

iVote 2. — Many primitive adjectives also have assumed one of the ter- 
mina ions (without signification) el/ crt/ er/ b/ t/ e f as: bitter/ eb^el/ 
ebseri/ £un=b (fenn-en)/ bid)4 idih-an), trdg=e/ mub-e. 

§ 137. Derivative Adjectives. 
— ig. This affix is joined to nouns of action, and indicates 

N 



134 FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

possession, and what is peculiar to a thing, as : m&dpiq, fleifMg, 
mutb-tg, xufyiQ, cer^jtdnbstg. 

— ifd> This affix indicates the proceeding from a person or 
place, and also the manner of an existence or action. Adjec- 
tives are derived with this affix from proper names, names of 
persons, and nouns of action, as : <Sad)f=tfd)/ S^ufctfd), #oll&nb=ifd), 
Sftomnfd)/ roetbstfd), bieb4fd> f tnbnfdj/ neib=tfd), jpotUfdj. 

— bar. This termination expresses bringing forth, and also 
the capability or possibility of doing or suffering something. 
It is added to nouns of action and to verbs: e.g. frucbtsbat/ 
banf=6ar/ ftrafsbar/ tfcbavt &c. 

— fam, indicates the inclination to that which is expressed 
in the primitive word, and is joined to substantives and verbs, 
as : furd)tsfam/ axUiU\am, tvad)=\am f fparsfatrt/ folgrfam. 

— en and ern> indicate the materials (©toff) of a thing, as : 
feibsen, ftetr^ern/ tyolj-errt/ golc^em ftlb=ew. 

— lid), indicates similarity of form or quality, also the man- 
ner of an action or condition, as : i 6mg4tcb/ bruber4id)/ Iun|t4id)/ 
jrfinbsltd)/ gluc£4td). Adjectives are derived with this affix from 
substantives, adjectives, and verbs. 

— id)t and baft have the same signification as ltd); as : graf=irf)t, 
wa^r^aft/ tbor=icht/ metfter=baft. 

§ 138. Adjectives may be compounded with substantives, 
verbs, adjectives, and particles. The fundamental word, 
necessarily, must be always an adjective, as : ItebeooU/ funfter= 
fafyren/ foblrabenfcbroari/ freubenlog/ lebenSmube/ merfrourbtg/ aufmerfs 
fam/ mitlctbig/ rmberftnmg/ gufunftig, &c. 

■ Note.— The adjectives UtXi lo6/ ret*/ ooll/ tt>ertl)/ and WUrbig par- 
ticularly, are often compounded with substantives, as: fretlbloS/ oer= 
ebrungsrourbtg/ bemerfenSroertt;/ &c. 

§ 139. Formation of Verbs. 

Verbs are either primitive, derivative or compound. 

All complex and irregular verbs (§ 59 — 68) are primitive, to 
which must be added also those of the Simple Order mentioned 
under § 122. 



FORMATION OF VERBS. 135 

§ 140. Derivative Verbs are formed : — 

a. By merely adding the infinitive termination —en to sub- 
stantives or adjectives, as : ftfcrjsen to fish, fcrjtffcen to sail, |tdrl=en 
to strengthen, n?drm=en to warm, fd)tt?dcr<=en to weaken. 

Note. — Verbs which are formed from adjectives are subject to a 
modification of vowel. 

b. By an internal change of sound, verbs are derived from 
other verbs. This internal change of sound consists in the 
modification of the radical vowel, and in the permutation of 
the vowel i into e. In this manner are especially formed tran- 
sitive verbs (with causative signification) from intransitive, as : 
fdllen from fallen, fyctngen from fcangen/ legen from Itegen/ (»er=) 
fcfyroenben from fcfytunbert/ fenlen from ftnlen/ fe|en from ff|en, 
fprengen from fpringen/ trdnfen from trtnfen/ fdugen from faugen, 
tjeften from tjaften/ roenben from nrinben, flofjen from fitefert/ fuforen 
from fafyren, &c. 

c. By the following affixes : — 

— djen and fen/ which add force to the signification, as : 
f)ord)en from horen, fyenfen from fodngen. 

— iUrtf indicates diminution, repetition, imitation, contempt, 
as : lxax\Mr\, fpotteln/ llugeln/ frommeln. 

— er«n, denotes repetition, inclination, as : flappern/ fdjldfern. 

§ 141. Compound Verbs. 

Simple verbs are compounded with substantives and adjec- 
tives, but especially with particles, as : mutljmo^en/ lobpreifen, 
roetterleud)ten 5 groftbun/ frettafferi/ feblfchlagen/ hocfradjten ; abreifen/ 
onfommen/ aufjtehen, fyei^ommen/ sorfefyen/ &c. 

Note 1. — All prepositions, when compounded with verbs, are reduced 
to the power and signification of adverbs. 

§ 142. Verbs compounded with prefixes are termed spurious 
compositions. They approach in their nature the derivatives, 
between which and the genuine compounds they form an inter- 
mediate link. The following are these prefixes: — 



136 FORMATION OF VERBS. 

ge — /does not, in general, change anything in the significa- 
tion of the verb ; sometimes it adds more force to it : e. g. ge= 
reuem ge=tvauen, gesfvteren, &c. 

Many verbs compounded with this prefix, are no longer in 

use without it, as : ge=ltngen/ ge=nefert/ ge*mefjen/ &c. 

Note. — The prefix ge — is supposed to be an old preposition: Gothic, 
ga; ORG. kaa.nd ki; Latin, co=cum. 

be — (the particle bet, OHG., pi, bi) indicates generally the 
direction of the activity expressed by the verb to an object. 
Intransitive verbs are changed into transitives by means of this 
prefix : e. g. be-f%n/ befallen/ be-weinen. 

Substantives and adjectives are likewise changed into tran- 
sitive verbs by this prefix, as : bc^gabem hz-mv^zn, be-gunfiigen ; 
berfreieti/ bc^fdnftigcn/ be=[d;6ntgen. 

Note. — The substantive frequently takes in these compositions the 
affix ig/ as : be4eib5tg=eri/ besgnab=tg=en, be=mad)tstgsen/ be4ajr4g*en. 

ent — (instead of which emp — is used before f> but only in 
the three verbs empfangen/ empfeblert/ empfinben), indicates tran- 
sition into another state, as : entsjunben, ent=fd)lafetv entsftetjen $ 
it denotes also removal, separation, and privation from an ob- 
ject, as: erttsfftegert, entsfommen/ entsjteben/ tnUfyalUxi, ent4aben, 
enkbaupten, &c. 

Note. — The prefix ent is: Gothic, and; OHG. ant,int, in. 

er — (OHG. ar y ir, and ur, originally auS), indicates gene- 
rally a direction to a personal object, as : er=bitten/ cr?j[ogen/ 
ersringen 5 it denotes also that the object expressed by the verb 
is attained, and that the action is entirely accomplished, as : 
ersbalten/ er?faufen, er=bettetn 5 also the direction from the interior 
(auS) of an object, or a motion upwards (auf)/ as : et=gie£ert/ 
er=geben 5 er=bauert/ eHieben/ er-blubert/ er^jteben 5 it signifies also 
the transition into another state, as : er-it>ad)en/ er=$tttern, 
er=ftaunen. 

wt — 1 in its original signification means forth, away, and 
expresses a direction turned away from the personal subject, 
e. g. tter=jagert/ ser^affen/ t>er=faufen, oer=fcbertfen 5 it indicates also 



FORMATION OF THE PRONOUNS. 137 

an error, loss, destruction, or annihilation, as : ftd) t)ersfd)reiben/ 

fid) t>er4rren, oersfennen ,* »er4tereti/ »er*fptelem ter^fdjtafen j »er= 

berben/ tter=Wuf)en/ oer4rennem oersgtftert/ &c. 

iVore. — The prefix t>er — is : Gothic, fair, faur ; OHG. far, fer, fir, for, 
and fra, and is identic with the Latin per, prae ; Sanscrit, pra and para. 

get — / indicates separation, crumbling into pieces, if the verb 
be intransitive, and destruction, if the verb be transitive, as: 
jersgefoen/ gersfatten/ jersfliejjen, jersffcteben $ jer=fcaucnr jer4egen, 
jersfpalten/ ger=retfjen/ &c. 

Note. — This prefix is in Gothic dis (Latin also dis) ; OHG. zu, za, ze, 
zi, zar, zir. 

§ 143. Formation of the Pronouns. 

1 . Primitives. — They form a peculiar class of roots, termed 
pronominal roots (^ronomtnatnmraeln), as : id), bU/ zx, ftc/ e§, xoxx, 
tyx, ftc 5 mein, bein, fctn/ i§r$ unf=er, etuer* mir/ btr/ tbm/ unS, eucfc, 
ifenscn/ mid), bid) 5 bet*/ bic bag 5 btef=er, lender > mx, roaS. All 
other pronouns, and many primitive prepositions, conjunctions, 
and adverbs have sprung from them. 

Note. — The chief principle of the formation of words appears to me to 
lie in the union of verbal and pronominal roots. — F. Bopp. 

2. Derivatives. — The derivation of pronouns is necessarily 
very limited, Ex. : bee meinstge, bein-t^C/ unfrstge/ eutstge/ tf)t*ige, &c. 

3. Compounds. — Pronouns are frequently compounded with 
other pronouns, prepositions, and adverbs : e. g. jesmanb (OHG. 
ioman, i.e. io some, and man man) ; nte=manb (OHG. nioman, 
i. e. nio no, and man) ; bersjemge, ber=felbige/ bersfelfee 5 also fold) 
and weld) are compounds, although they have now the appear- 
ance of simple words : fold) has sprung from the Old-German 
so-lih, fo;04eid), so-like, i. e. such ; and weld) from the Old- 
German hue-Uh, or we-lih, tt>ie=gleid), or ttue befdfaffen/ of what 
kind. 

Note. — In the pronoun ettt>a$ (OHG. etewaz) the syllable et is a very 
ancient prefix ; Old Ger. eddes and eta. This prefix exists now only in 
etttmg, etttJan, or ettua (Old Ger. etewanne) perhaps, and in ettid)er some; 
Old Ger. eta-lihher. 

N 3 



138 FORMATION OF THE ADVERBS. 

Compositions of pronouns with the prepositions rcegen, fjalfcen, 
and rcitlen, as : metnetrcegen, betnetrcegen, metnetbalben, unfertroegen, 
urn betnetrottfen j bejsrcegen, beftyalb, urn beftmitten, toepatb. 

Compositions with the nouns gaU/ ©ejtalt, gj^af/ ©eite, as : 
begfallg, bergeftalt, bermafen, meinerfettg, unfeverfettg, &c. 

Note. — To these belongs also the composition with the antiquated sub- 
stantive "bte Set " (OHG. leige), signifying mode and manner, as: berlei 
(of this kind), btefetlei, roeldjerlei, folcbetlet, metnerlet, beinerlei, Dieters 
let/ manctjeriet, &c. 

Compositions with the adjective gtetch (like), as : meineSgleidjen 
(my like), betne6gteid)en, fetneSgletcfcen, unfevSgletcfien, befgletcfren, 
bergleidjen, &c. 



§ 144. Formation of the Adverbs. 

Adverbs are formed for the greater part from verbs, sub- 
stantives, adjectives, pronouns, and numerals; and most of the 
prepositions and conjunctions are taken from adverbs. 

In German, almost every adjective and participle, in its 
fundamental form, may be used as an adverb of quality : e. g. 
Kug prudently, iret[e wisely, fcfcon beautifully, furj shortly, &c. 

Note. — In the Old German language adverbs were formed by the affix 
o, as: rehto, snello, Iango, which affix wrs reduced in the Middle High- 
German tongue to the weak e, as : snelle, lange, sfarke, and at last en- 
tirely dropped, as : fchnell, redjt/ jraif. 

1. As original adverbs we consider the following: ciet# mehr, 
metjr, genug/ eft/ jJeir, frtifc, mobt, nab, ferrt/ oft/ nun, }e, r.e, nodv \a, 
auffen, unten, ofcen, tern, fort j to these are to be added also the 
prepositions ab, an, auf, auS, bet, turd), in (ein), ot, urn, rcr, ju, 
the original signification of which is adverbial, and which, even 
now, in their composition with substantives and verbs, have 
entirely preserved the nature of adverbs. 

Note. — The origin of the above adverbs is obscure, and their connection 
with other parts of speech cannot be traced. Many particles have now 
assumed the appearance of simple primitives, in consequence of their 
form having become contracted and abbrevia'ed. 



FORMATION OF THE ADVERBS. 139 

2. Many adverbs have sprung- from demonstrative or interro- 
gative pronouns, and these are then called pronominal adverbs. 
From the Gothic demonstrative pronoun his, Old Ger. Mr, are 
derived t)in (OHG. hina), btnter/ bjnten ; fyer (OHG. hero), bjer; 
binnen. From the demonstrative pronoun bev, bit, ba$ (Old 
Ger. der, diu, daz), proceed the particles ba$ ; bann, benn 5 ba, 
bar, bannen 5 bcrt 5 befto $ bod). From the interrogative pronoun 
voev, roa§ (Old. Ger. /mer, huaz), have originated the adverbs 
rearm, menn$ tt>o, roannen; rote. The adverb of quality fo, is 
derived from the Gothic pronoun sa, so. The particle fo is 
compounded with al (alt) in alfo, which is finally reduced to 
al§. 

Note. — The pronominal adverbs are very frequently compounded either 
with themselves or with prepositions, as: batyx, babtn, tt)ot)er, mobin, 
bietber, bjetbtrt, border, bortbtn j corber, nacbhet/ umber/ biSfyer, 
mitbin^ ber»or/ fjernacb, berau§/ bevum, barauS, barauf/ tt>orin, 
fomit, &c. 

3. Many adverbs are formed from cases of substantives and 
adjectives, for instance, the genitives morgeng, abenbS/ nacbtg, 
feineSroegeg, fiugS, tfyeitg, falls, UnH, red)tg, ftets, befonberS, sergebeng, 
oftrcatig, tjetmrcartg, &c, and the accusatives alle§eit, einmal, mand)= 
mal, rceg (ben UBeg), tjeim, &c. 

4. Adverbs are variously formed by the composition of 
substantives and adjectives with prepositions, as : unicnregS, 
ootmalg/ betfetts, bergan, malbetn, bergauf, ftromab, firomauf, jabraug, 
jabretn, beifammen, furmabr, jugleidj/ melleicbt. 

To these may be added also the compositions of the sub- 
stantive 3£eife with other substantives and adjectives, as: oor^ 
juggmeife, tbetlmeife, fdjergroetfe, glucflidjerroetfe, ungluc!lid)ermetfe, &c. 

5. Many adverbs are formed with the affixes lid) and lings : 
e. g. fretlid), rotrf ltd), wabrlid) 3 rMltngg, blinblingS, meudjlingg, &c. 

6. The adverbs balb soon, gem willingly, laum hardly, fctjr 
very, fdjon already, fa ft almost, are originally adjectives, as : 
balb (OHG. palt), has primitively the signification of " bold, 
quick :" gem (OHG. herno), as original adjective signifies 
eager : !aum (OHG. hum, from the verb chuman to suffer), 



140 FORMATION OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 

painful, little: fefyr (Old Ger. ser the pain), sore : frf)on (Old 
Ger. scono) from fd)8n : faft (Old. Ger. vasto), from the adjective 

felt. 

Note. — The adverb wcnig (Old Ger. wenac) little, as original adjective, 
signifies "sad," as: wdnit sih kindda, — diu wenaga sela, e$ tjoffet 
(xvhtynt) ftd) ©nabcbte traurtge <&ieU.—Muspilli ed. Schmeller. 

7. The following adverbs are of peculiar formation : immer, 
nie, nimmer, ntc&t, nein, nirgenb, nur, fonjr, fyeute, fyeuer, fjetnt, 
neben, empor, gir-ar. From the simple adverb je (Gothic ai'v, 
time ; Old Ger. io, eo), ever, are derived nie (Gothic ni-aiv ; 
Old Ger. nio), never ; tmmer (Old Ger. eo-mer, ie-mer), always, 
compounded of je and mefjrj nimmer (Old Ger. nio-mer, nie- 
mer), never, compounded of nie and me§r. The adverb nid)t 
(Old Ger. nio-wiht) is formed with the ancient negative par- 
ticle ni, and the ancient substantive wiht, a thing, something, 
thence also nidjtg, nothing ; nein is formed by the composition 
of ni and etn. Srgenb (Old Ger. iohuergin) singnifies at a 
certain time or place, thence nirgenb, i. e. md)t irgcnb. 9tur 
(Old Ger. newdre, i.e. contraction of ne or ni and ware, imperf. 
ware) only, signifies— eS ware benn, if it were not. ©onjt is a 
contraction of the Old Ger. so ne ist, i. e. if it be not. %\x<h 
(Gothic auk, from the verb aukan to increase), means 
" adding thereto." £eute, contracted from the Old Ger. hiu- 
tu, on this day, and this of the hiu-taku ; Gothic, himma-daga ; 
Lat. hodie. £euer (Old Ger. hiure), contracted from hiu-jare, 
in this year. $etnt/ contracted from hiu-naht, in this night. 
Sfteben is a contraction of the Old German in epan, in ber ©bene, 
(gmpor is contracted from the Old Ger. in in, and por height, 
i. e. in bte £or;e. 3n>ar is contracted from the Old Ger. zi 
warn, in SKSahrfyett. 

§ 145. Formation of the Prepositions. 

i 

According to their formation, the prepositions are either 
primitive, .as: ah, an, auf, aug, bei, in, mit, fur/ burd), narf), ob, 
cfyne, feit, um, von, jus or derivative, as: Derm5ge, jroifdjcn/ 



FORMATION OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 141 

iregen/ rmttelS, rodhrenb/ nddjfl/ fonber, fammt/ &c. ; or compound, 
as : gegenuber/ anjiatt, bteSfeit/ ienfeit/ oberbalb/ unterhalb/ juttnber, 
jufolge, &c. 

Many prepositions are taken from nouns and adverbs, as : 
gegeti/ halben/ wegeri/ neben/ &c. See § 82. 

Note. — The particle abt off, is in the Gothic and Old German languages 
a real preposition: e.g. aba wege, off the way ; aba rnir, from me. It 
is used, even now, as a preposition with the dative in several South 
German and Swiss dialects: e. g. ab bem SSerge from the mountain. In 
the New High-German language, however, it is used only as an adverb in 
compositions, as: abgefyen/ abretfen/ 2Cbfall* tfbjug/ &c 

The following words, chiefly nouns, have assumed only in 
the modern language the power of prepositions : gufotge, f raft/ 
laut/ tmttelS/ bteSfett, ienfeit/ ftatt/ trofc/ roillcn 5 gemaf/ lariat ndchft, 
ungead)tet, unroeit/ ro&fyrenb. 

§ 146. Formation of the Conjunctions. 

They are either primitive, as : ba f aud)/ bap/ unb/ banri/ tenn/ 
bo*/ fo> al§/ wie/ roenn/ ir»ett 5 derivative, as : nomltd)/ ferner/ beoor/ 
fdliefjltd)/ &c. ; or compound, as : otelmetjr/ g!eid)»o^t/ obrcobl, 
bamit/ intern/ batum; befffyalb/ &c. Most of the conjunctions were 
originally adverbs, and many of them are even now used as 
such. 

§ 147. Final Observations. 

It may be remarked that the power of forming new words 
by an internal change of sound (2(blaut) in the root, although 
the most ancient principle, is long since extinct in the German 
language, and no new terms can be created in this way, for 
nobody would understand them. The derivation of words 
through the medium of affixes and prefixes expired next. In 
the present language derivation continues alive only in part, 
and under great restrictions. The modern language evidently 
tends to supplant derivatives by compounds ; and in the facility 
of composition, which it possesses is reserved a last but inex- 
haustible means of continually enlarging its stock of words in 



142 FINAL OBSERVATIONS. 

proportion as extended knowledge may demand them. This 
must be considered as an invaluable advantage in every 
Germanic tongue, through which a number of new expressions 
of great force and beauty is readily obtained. The power of 
forming words by composition can be extinguished only with 
the life of the language itself; but it must not be forgotten, 
that great judgment is required in its use. 



143 



CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 

I. Natural Order of Principal Sentences. 
Subject. JfcCopula. (Objectives 8fc.) Predicate. 

£a6£tnb tft tvad). 

£er$D?ann tft ...... ein £)teb. 

@r t>at mir ben SSrtef gefctytctt. 

SOSir roerben in bie (Stabt gefyen. 

@te lommcn. | 

£arl fd)reibt ab. 

2)a§ 9J?dbd)en^ tnad)te ba§ genfter auf. 

@r ift (fd)on) ausgegangen. - 

2)er £nabe ift (fyeute nicfyt) fletfig geroefen. 

£)u tt>irft (nur) eine (Stunbe gearbeitet fyaben. 

II. Inverted Order of Principal Sentences. 

Copula. Subject. (Obj. cases, fyc.) Predicate. 

<S6 ift ein Fernet erfd)tenen. 

@g erfd)ten ein ftomct. 

3ft er gefommen? 

£ann baS 23ab ferttg fein ? 

SBare er nad) #aufe gegangen. 

£>en S3rtef tyat berSSote metner grau gcbracf)t. 

2)en SBein trans' er (nicfyt). 

©eftern ift fte nad) SSeritn abgeretft. 

2)at)er retfte ber ftrembe (confer) ab. 

£>af er Ifigt, V>abt id) (fd)on lange) gettmfjt. 

SBenn er I ommt, getjen mir roeg. 

Construction of Subordinate Sentences. 

{ CmZnrttot V ) Subject t° bj ' CaSeS ' 4 ' C,) Predicate - C °P ula - 

roeii ba6# aug metnem ©ofyn gefalten tyat. 

bafj bu oon tfym nid)t betrogen roerbeft. 

aU er bie Stjur pmacfyte. 

roenn fte lefen fann. 

roeld)en wir bem ©lanne surutfgegeben tjaben. 

roeld)e$ itmt nid)t angenetjm geroefentft. 

roaS wir (aber nidjt) tf)im rooHten. 

fur ben er einen Sag gearbeitet fyat. 

beffen S3ruber g ju mir f ommen ttrirb. 

aber ba nrirnicfyt suitjr geijen lonnen. 



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